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MCAT > AAMC Test 1 set > Flashcards

AAMC Test 1 set Flashcards

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1
Q

Cavernous

A

large cave or chamber

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2
Q

Critical point

A

point at which different phases of matter can exist simultaneously

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3
Q

Triple point

A

where solid, liquid, and gas can exist simultaneously

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4
Q

Phase boundary

A

transition point of matter

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5
Q

Bond formation

A

Bond formation is an exothermic process -> energy is release so -H
- Bond formation and bond breaking of the same atoms yield the same magnitude of energy but opposite signs

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6
Q

When matter is changing phase, it’s temperature is..

A

When matter is changing phase, it’s temperature is constant until the phase change is complete

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7
Q

Heat of vaporization

A

the amount of enthalpy added to a liquid to transform it into gas

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8
Q

Heat (or enthalpy) of fusion

A

amount of heat that is required to change a specific quantity of a substance from a solid to a liquid without increase in temperature and at constant pressure

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9
Q

Calorimetry

A

measure the transfer of heat in chemical reactions, physical changes, and phase changes

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10
Q

Electric fields

A

vector fields which have a magnitude and direction
- The direction of the magnetic field is the direction force will be exerted on a positive charge when placed in that field

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11
Q

A proton and electron are oppositely charged and will produce an attractive force on one another

A
  • The attractive force experienced by each charge will be equal and opposite
    • Acceleration of an object is equal to force/mass -> Due to the electron’s mass being smaller, it will experience a greater acceleration
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12
Q

To determine the magnitude of the acceleration that each charge experiences, we must know:

A
  • Charge magnitude, charge mass, and distance between the charges
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13
Q

Coulomb’s Law

A
  • F = k (q1q2/d^2)
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14
Q

-ase

A

protein enzyme

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15
Q

Enzymes that are not proteins

A

ribosome (made of RNA)

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16
Q

Catalyst/enzymes

A

lowers activation energy

- Vast majority of enzymes are reversible

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17
Q

Enzymes in glycolysis that are irreversible in physiological conditions:

A

Hexokinase (rxn 1), PFK (rxn 3), pyruvate kinase (rxn 10)

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18
Q

Vmax

A

maximum rate of enzyme activity - we never reach Vmax

- Asymptotic curve - curve gets closer but never reaches

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19
Q

Km

A

the amount of substrate required for the enzyme to work at 1/2 the maximum rate of enzyme
- The higher the km = the lower the affinity of the enzyme to the substrate

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20
Q

Hexokinase

A

high affinity, low kcat

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21
Q

Glucokinase

A

lower affinity high kcat

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22
Q

Kcat

A

catalytic rate- the max speed of one enzyme - how quickly can you work at maximum rate

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23
Q

Need enzymes with different affinities and efficiency to allow

A

Need enzymes with different affinities and efficiency to allow for adaptivity and balanced use of substrate throughout the body

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24
Q

Cooperative enzyme

A

Hill coefficient > +/-1
- E.g. hemoglobin - cooperatively binds to oxygen
Positive Hill coefficient = positive cooperativity = when binding of a ligand to an enzyme enhances the binding of additional ligand to that enzyme
Negative Hill Coefficient = negative cooperativity = when binding of a ligand to an enzyme inhibits the binding of additional ligand to that enzyme

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25
Q

Hill coefficient = 1

A

not cooperative enzyme

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26
Q

Michaelas Menton equation

A

Rate of enzyme equation

- V = (vmax [S])/([S] + Km)

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27
Q

Lineweaver burk plot

A
  • More useful during lab to determine variables
    • Y-intercept = 1/vmax
    • X-intercept = -1/km
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28
Q

Competitive inhibitors

A

Competitive inhibitors look and act like the substrate
- Most effective when there is not a lot of substrate around
- Vmax is the same
Km increases - can be overcome by more substrates

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29
Q

Noncompetitive inhibitors

A

Noncompetitive inhibitors bind to allosteric site with or without substrate attached

- Decreases vmax - kcat decreases too
- Km remains the same
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30
Q

Uncompetitive inhibitor

A

Uncompetitive inhibitor binds to enzyme substrate complex

- Decreases vmax
- Decreases km - more sensitive to substrate
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31
Q

Lysogenic cycle

A

Lysogenic cycle = virus binds to genome

E.g. HIV = give lots of long terminal repeat for the virus to bind to instead of our own genome

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32
Q

Long terminal repeat

A

repeating region of genome

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33
Q

Suicide inhibitor

A

bind and break the enzyme - irreversible

- E.g. aspirin

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34
Q

Mixed inhibitor

A

when characteristics of different inhibitors are in one inhibitor
- E.g. inhibitor that can bind the enzyme with or without a substrate but preferentially works better when the substrate is bound => both noncompetitive and uncompetitive

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35
Q

Most efficient enzymes

A

high kcat and low km = kcat/km
An object will float in a liquid when the amount of liquid displaced weighs as much as the object
- Gravity on a different planet will change the mass of the liquid and object by the same amount so the object will float the same as on earth

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36
Q

Buoyant force

A

the weight of the water it displaces = weight of the object
Specific gravity of water =1
- Specific gravity < 1 = float
- Specific gravity > 1 = sink
- The denser the fluid, the more the displaced fluid will weigh

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37
Q

The amount of water the ice displaces is the same as the amount of water in the ice
explain

A

When it melts, the ice will take the same volume as the water it initially displaced and there will be no change in the water level of the beaker

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38
Q

Less dense liquids will be displaced more to achieve the…

A

same buoyant force as a denser liquid

The denser the liquid, the more the buoyant force

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39
Q

Sign of the source charge and sign of point charge only affects the

A

direction of the electric force

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40
Q

Coulomb’s Law

A 
magnitude of the electrostatic force (Fe) is proportional to the product of the magnitude of the charges
	F=k0*q*Q/d^2
	- F = electrostatic force
	- q = point charge
	- Q = source charge
	- d = distance away from source charge
K0 = 9 x 10^9
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41
Q

Negative (-) change in electrical potential

A

the point charge moves from a position of higher electric potential to a position of lower electric potential

- Favorable direction of charge -> loses potential energy and gains kinetic energy during the movement
- The point charge moves to its new location due to the force generated by the electric field on the charge -> object being moved will increase in velocity during its movement
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42
Q

Electric field

A

radiates out from a charge in field lines with strong and closer field lines towards the charge and les as it radiates out
Equation for determining electric field: E =k0Q/r^2
○ Q = source charge
○ r = distance between the charges
○ K0= coulomb’s constant = 9 x 10^9 Nm^2/C^2

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43
Q

Electric force

A

force that pushes apart two like charges or that pulls together two unlike charges

- Size of attraction decrease as the distance between them increases
- Electric field x charge = force
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44
Q

Electrical potential energy

A

energy that is needed to move a charge against an electric field - associated with a particle with a charge

- Need more energy to move a charge further in the electric field
- Energy used to move particle away from the plate is stored in the particle as electrical potential energy
- It is the potential that the particle has to move when it is let go
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45
Q

Electrical potential

A

joules/coulomb = the difference in potential energy per unit charge between two locations in an electric field - associated with position in space
- How much work needed per unit charge

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46
Q

If we place a positive charge near a negative plate - electrical potential is

A

low

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47
Q

If we place a positive charge further from the negative plate - electrical potential is

A

high

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48
Q

If we have two plates, one negative and one positive, the electrical potentials

A

the electrical potentials of the positive and negative plates combine
○ Positive charge near the negative plate and far from the positive plate - electrical potential is very low
○ Positive charge near the positive plate and far from the negative plate - electrical potential is very high

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49
Q

Can find electrical potential energy

A

PE = electrical potential (V) x charge ©

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50
Q
  • Change in electrical potential of a point charge
A
  • Path does not matter
    - Electrical potential difference = V = k0*Q/r
    ○ Q = value of source charge
    ○ r = distance between the source charge and the point charge
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51
Q

Electrical potential is not voltage since voltage

A

change in electrical potential in two points in space

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52
Q

Gravitational force can only act

A

Gravitational force can only act to attract both spheres towards each other

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53
Q

Law of conservation of charge

A

net charge of an isolated system remains constant

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54
Q

Work is independent of __

A

path

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55
Q

Power

A

Power = work/time = force x velocity

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56
Q

Work in electrostatics

A

W = qEd
- When displacement is the same for different paths of a point charge along a constant field, the energy expended is equivalent

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57
Q

Triboelectric effect

A

exchange of electrons -> leading to attractive forces between molecules

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58
Q

Coulomb

A

measure of charge

- 1 coulomb = 6.24 x 10^18 electrons
- e = 1.6 x 10^-19 C
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59
Q

Newton’s law of gravitation

A
  • FG = Gm1m2/r^2

- Similar pattern to coulombs law

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60
Q

Insulators

A

when charges are added, charges cannot move in an insulator so they are stuck
- composed of atoms and molecules where the positively charged nucleus are generally stationary (solid)
- Electrons cannot jump from atom to atom
- Atoms can become polarized to a favorable direction when in contact with something electric or polarized though the atoms cannot move
E.g. wood, plastic

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61
Q

Conductors

A

when charges are added, charges will migrate away from each other to the edges of the conductors since like charges repel

- Electrons can jump from atom to atom
- composed of atoms and molecules where the positively charged nucleus are generally stationary (solid)
- E.g. gold, silver, copper
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62
Q

Can charge conducting rods by

A

physically touching and the charges spread to each other

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63
Q

Charge by induction

A

can charge by putting two conducting rods close in proximity to each other and charges will leave since it is repelled by the other conductor into the ground (can deposit or give infinite amount of e-) -> rod has a net amount of charge

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64
Q

Boltzmann said that when temperature is high

A

Boltzmann said that when temperature is high the average KE of those molecules are large - feels hotter when KE is high

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65
Q

Ideal gas law variables - smaller gas molecules

A
  • PV = nRT
    • P = pressure in Pascals
    • V = volume m^3
    • n = number of moles
    • R = gas constant = 8.31 J/mole*K
    • T = temperature in K
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66
Q

In order to obey ideal gas law

A

we would minimize the effects of intermolecular interactions and molecular sizes of these gases

- Ideal gas conditions in the environment 
	- high temperature (lots of KE to move around and not be experiencing forces from each other)
	- Low pressure (less inhibited to move around)
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67
Q

Properties of ideal gases

A

to allow stable predictions of pressure, volume, and temperature

- Collisions between gas molecules are completely elastic - no energy lost during collisions
- Gas molecules do not interact with each other except during collisions
- Volume occupied by molecules is negligible compared to the volume occupied by the gas
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68
Q

Boltzmann’a ideal gas law

A

focuses on number of molecules to get a more microscopic estimate of gas law

- PV = N*kB*T
- P = pascals
- V = volume in m^3
- N = # of molecules
- kB = boltzmann's constant = n/N*R = 1.38 x 10^-23
	- n = number of moles
	- N = number of molecules 
	- n/N = 1/Avogadro's number
	- R = gas constant
- T = temperature K
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69
Q

S = kB*lnW

A
  • S = entropy
    • kB = boltzmann’s constant = 1.38 x 10^-23
    • W = # of microstates = how many ways to change microstate to maintain the same macrostate
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70
Q

Total internal energy (KE) for a monatomic ideal gas

A 
U= (3/2)PV = (3/2)NkT = (3/2)nRT
	- Work done by gas = energy leaves
	- Work done on gas = energy gains
	- △U = Q + W
		- Q = heat
W = work
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71
Q

W = P*△V

A
  • Pressure is constant - heat while expanding to maintain pressure as constant
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72
Q

Heat molar capacity, C = Q/n△T

A

how much temperature increases after a certain amount of heat is added

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73
Q

Heat capacity at constant volume

A

Cv = △U/△T = (3/2)PV/△T = (3/2)NkB = (3/2)nR

- Molar heat capacity at constant volume = (3/2)R

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74
Q

Heat capacity at constant pressure = Cp

A

Cp = Q/△T = (5/2)nR

	- Molar heat capacity at constant pressure = (5/2)R
- Difference between the Cv and Cp = nR
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75
Q

Kinetic Molecular Theory of Gases

A 
macroscopic properties (P,V,T) of gas are the result of microscopic properties of the gas molecules (x (position),v (speed))
	- Elastic = does not loose KE after collision and bounces back with same velocity
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76
Q

P = F/A

A

force/area = pressure

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77
Q

F = △p/△t

A

F = △p/△t = m△v/△t = mv^2/L

- △p = change in momentum = m△v
	- m = mass
	- △v = change in velocity
- △t = change in time
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78
Q

total thermal energy of monatomic gas

A
  • (3/2)PV = N*KEavg = total KE
    • Utotal = (3/2)PV
    • Utotal = (3/2)NkBT
    • Utotal = (3/2)nRT
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79
Q

Average kinetic energy of 1 ideal gas molecule: KEavg

A

KEavg = (3/2)T

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80
Q

Real gases experience intermolecular forces

A

Real gases experience intermolecular forces between gas molecules (van der waals forces)

- Real gases molecules possess mass
- Real gases have lower pressure and higher volume compared to ideal gases
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81
Q

Positive correlation in equations

A

on different sides of the equal sign on equations

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82
Q

negative correlation in equations

A

on the same side of the equation

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83
Q

Boyle’s Law

A
  • P1V1 = P2V2
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84
Q

Innocuous

A

not harmful or offensive; harmless, safe

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85
Q

Dissecting research figure: TAUT

A
  1. Title
    1. Axes/variables
    2. Units
    3. Trends - statistical significant data points
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86
Q

Error bars

A

range of possible true values -> only to disprove significance
○ If bars overlap, the relationship is not significant
○ Worse case scenario when there is no p-value asterisks

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87
Q

-/-

A

-/- = both allele knockout = completely knocked out alleles from genetics

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88
Q

Strategy for MCAT Questions:

A
  1. Read the question
    1. Simplify -> what is the question really asking?
    2. Identify necessary passage info and/or background knowledge
      ○ Whenever possible, make predictions
    3. Approach answer choices + be PESSIMISTIC
      ○ Where are the bad answers - look for things that are wrong
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89
Q

Complex II produces electron from

A

NADH2

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90
Q

Amino acids that can be charges

A
  • (Dragons Eat)- (Knights Riding Horses)+

- Histidine is similar to physiological pH - can be neutral or positive

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91
Q

Electron transport chain

A

mitochondria
- Redox reactions throughout the chain, ending with the reduction of oxygen into water
- As the electrons through molecules of higher reduction potential, energy is released
○ Energy released is coupled to pump protons across into the intermembrane space
- The protons in the intermembrane space are so desperate to leave that they go through ATP synthase and generate ATP

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92
Q

triangles side lengths and degrees

A
  • Wx = W sinθ

Wy = W cosθ

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93
Q

1Mkg (mega kilogram)

A

1 x 10^6 kg

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94
Q

Head to tail rule

A

when subtracting vectors

- Understand what needs to be added and reverse the direction of the arrow

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95
Q

The units of the rate constant, k, depend on the

A

overall order of the reaction
- K[A]^m[B]^n
- Order of reaction = m + n
○ When m + n = 0, units are M/s

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96
Q

Ionization energy

A

the amount of energy required for an atom to give up an electron
- In a spontaneous redox reaction, the atom which has the lowest ionization energy is the one which is spontaneously ionized via oxidation

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97
Q

acid dissociation constant, Ka

A

The extent dissociation of an acid can be predicted by the acid dissociation constant, Ka
- Ka is related to the base dissociation constant, Kb, of its conjugate base, by the equation Ka x Kb = 10^-14

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98
Q

Electrolytic cell

A

a battery applies a voltage in order to cause the electrode with higher reduction potential to undergo oxidation, and the electrode with the lower reduction potential to be reduced

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99
Q

Galvanic cell

A

a battery applies a voltage in order to cause the electrode with lower reduction potential to undergo oxidation, and the electrode with the higher reduction potential to be reduced

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100
Q

Electron flow vs. current flow

A

Electron flow from anode to cathode, while current flow is from cathode to anode

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101
Q

Electrolyte

A

a substance that dissolves in a polar solvent (typically water) and separates into cations and anions and conducts electricity

- many electrolytes are salts (the product of reacting acid with a base)
- Some electrolytes are acids and bases (which ionize in solution)
- The greater the extent to which a substance can dissociate into cations and anions, the greater its ability to conduct electricity
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102
Q

Strong electrolyte

A

is a substance which is completely soluble in its solvent such as the salt NaCl or the strong acid HCl
- Strong acids and bases are strong electrolytes because they dissociate completely in solution

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103
Q

Solid metals

A

Solid metals conduct electricity through the movement of free electrons

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104
Q

Ineluctable

A

unable to be resisted or avoided; inescapable

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105
Q

Anachronistic

A

belonging to a period other than that being portrayed

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106
Q

Plight

A

a dangerous, difficult, or otherwise unfortunate situation

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107
Q

Impetus

A

the force or energy with which a body moves

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108
Q

Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLPs)

A

different lengths of nucleotides following restriction enzyme digestion since different individuals will have different sequences in the location of cleavage sites

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109
Q

Gel Electrophoresis

A

separates DNA fragments by size

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110
Q

Gene cloning

A

often uses methods that require gel electrophoresis

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111
Q

Restriction enzyme

A

break up the phosphodiester bonds in the middle of the DNA strand - endonuclease
- Need palindromic sequence in which the coding 5’–>3’ and the template 5’–>3’ strand must read the same
- Cleave double stranded DNA
No effect on promoter region

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112
Q

Exonuclease

A

cleave phosphodiester bonds at the ends of a DNA strand

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113
Q

Acyltransferase

A

transfer acyl chains

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114
Q

Gas chromatography

A

samples being vaporized and passed through a liquid or solid stationary phase using a gaseous mobile phase

- Stationary phase lets polar molecules elute more slowly 
- The molecules with the lowest boiling points come out of the column first (first peak)
- The molecules with higher boiling points come out of column last (last peak)
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115
Q

SN2

A

there will be ab inversion of configuration

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116
Q

Enzymes

A

stabilizing transition state and lowers activation energy of the reaction by providing the binding energy

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117
Q

O-18

A

natural stable isotope of oxygen and one of the environmental isotopes

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118
Q

Strong acid

A
  • HCl = hydrochloric acid
    • HBr = hydrobromic acid
    • HI = hydroiodic acid
    • HNO3 = nitric acid
    • HClO3 = chloric acid
    • HClO4 = perchloric acid
    • H2SO4 = sulfuric acid
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119
Q

Strong Bases

A
  • LiOH = lithium hydroxide
    • NaOH = sodium hydroxide
    • KOH = Potassium hydroxide
    • RbOH = rubidium hydroxide
    • CsOH = Cesium hydroxide
    • Ca(OH)2 = calcium hydroxide
    • Sr(OH)2 = strontium hydroxide
    • Ba(OH)2 = barium hydroxide
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120
Q

Index of refraction = n = c/v

A
  • C = speed of light in vacuum = 3 x 10^8 m/s

V = speed of light in the material

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121
Q

The energy of a photon

A

The energy of a photon = plancks’s constant x freqeuncy of EM wave
E = hf

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122
Q

Terahertz = THz

A

1012 Hz

Work = power x time

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123
Q

Work

A

power x time

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124
Q

Cysteine

A

Cysteine residues get oxidized to form disulfide bonds with oxidants

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125
Q

Break disulfide bonds with

A

reducing agents

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126
Q

At higher pH side chains of some residues..

At lower pH, side chains of some residues…

A

At higher pH side chains of some residues deprotonate and become negatively charged
At lower pH, side chains of some residues protonate

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127
Q

Blood is incompressible

A

the rate of flow into an area must equal the rate of flow out of an area

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128
Q

Equation of continuity

A

can show how much speed of a liquid increases if it is forced to flow through a smaller area
Larger cross-sectional area = decreased velocity

129
Q

Capillaries

A

smaller than other blood vessels and have single-celled walls that are not elastic

130
Q

Factors that increase resistance of flow

A
  • Increase Vessel length
    • Decrease Vessel radius
    • Increase Viscosity of liquid
131
Q

Steric number 2

A

linear (180 degrees and 0 one pairs)

132
Q

Steric number 3

A

trigonal planar (0LP, 120), bent or angular (1LP, <120)

133
Q

Steric number 4

A

tetrahedral (0LP, 109), trigonal pyramid (1LP, <109), bent or angular (2LP, «109)

134
Q

Steric number 5

A

trigonal bipyramid (0LP, 120+90), sawhorse or seesaw (1LP, <90 +<120), T-shape (2LP, <90), linear (3LP, 180)

135
Q

Steric number 6

A

octahedral (0LP, 90), square pyramid (1LP, <90), square planar (2LP, 90), T-shape (3LP, <90), linear (4LP, 180)

136
Q

Valence bond theory

A

the central atom requires the hybridization of six atomic orbitals

137
Q

Gram-mole

A

old way to refer to the molar mass of a substance

138
Q

Ideal gas

A

gas whose randomly-moving particles exhibit no attractive interactions

- At high temperatures and low pressures, gases behave close to ideally
- Particles are far apart that they do not exert attractive forces upon one another
- Not in real life
139
Q

LipA

A 
lysosomal lipase
Lipase = hydrolase enzymes that catalyze the hydrolysis of fats
	- Subclass of esterases
140
Q

Change in net charge

A
  • E.g. K112D (+1 to -1) => -1 -(+1) = -2
141
Q

a-1,4-Glycosidic bonds

A

Linear chains of glycogen are bound by a-1,4-Glycosidic bonds (glycogen synthase)

142
Q

a-1,6-Glycosidic bonds

A

Branches of glycogen chains have a-1,6-glycosidic bond (glycogen branching enzyme)

143
Q

Ribose

A

pentofuranose/aldopentose in which the C2 and C3 hydroxyl groups are cis, and the C3 hydroxyl group and the C4 hydroxymethyl group are trans

144
Q

Kinetics

A

how quickly a reaction is going to happen

- Rate laws = the rate of something occurring

145
Q

Thermodynamics

A

is it spontaneous?

146
Q

When product is favored -> Keq >1

A
  • Does not mean that reaction goes forward - if there is already a lot of product, it may need to go backwards (need to know concentration of products and reactants to know the direction of reaction)
    • Keq = [product]/[reactant] -> where the reaction wants to go - equilibrium``
147
Q

Balanced between product and reactant -> Keq

A

Keq = 1

148
Q

Liquid and solid cannot change concentration

A

so they are not included in equilibrium (Keq)

Aqueous and gas are included in equilibrium

149
Q

Reaction Quotient = Q

A

Reaction Quotient = Q = [product]/[reactant]

- Concentration of product and reactant right now
- Changes from many different factors - chatelier's principle
150
Q

the only thing that affects Keq

A

Temperature

151
Q

Kd

A

Keq for dissociation
- E.g. with enzyme -> higher kd = more enzyme + substrate than enzyme-substrate complex => low affinity for substrate for the enzyme
Opposite trend for Ka (keq for association) since Ka is the reverse of kd

152
Q

Ksp

A

keq for stuff dissolving - solubility

- Q for Ksp = Ion Product 
- Ksp > IP => unsaturated product -> dissolves (forward rxn)
- Ksp = IP => saturated solution 
- Ksp > IP => supersaturated -> precipitation occurs (reverse rxn)
- Heat => Ksp goes up -> dissolves more
153
Q

Gas can be dissolved in water

A
  • Colder water -> holds more gas

- Warmer water -> releases gas more

154
Q

Solids dissolved in water

A
  • Colder water -> less dissolution

- Warmer water -> more dissolution

155
Q

Kc

A

keq for combustion

156
Q

Alpha decay

A

lose 2 protons and 2 neutrons

- Atomic mass (A) decreases by 4
- Atomic number (Z) decreases by 2
157
Q

Beta - decay

A

loses 1 electron

- Atomic mass (A) is unchanged
- Atomic number (Z) increase by 1
158
Q

Beta + decay

A

loses 1 proton

- Atomic mass (A) is unchanged 
- Atomic number (Z) decreases by 1
159
Q

Gamma emission

A

relaxation and gamma radiation is emitted (high energy photon by the nucleus)
- No change in atomic mass (A) or atomic number (Z)

160
Q

Image height/object height

A

lens image distance/object lens distance = i/o

1/f = 1/o + 1/I

161
Q

Stimulated nuclear fission

A

emission of neutrons by the nucleus

162
Q

Homogenous catalyst

A

those that occupy the same phase as the reaction mixture
- Catalyst mixes into the reaction mixture - allowing a very high degree of interaction between the catalyst and reactant molecules

163
Q

Common ion effect

A

occurs when an ionic compound comes into contact with a substance sharing a common ion

164
Q

Tumultuous

A

making a loud, confused noise

165
Q

Obsequious

A

obedient or attentive to an excessive or servile degree

166
Q

Reverent

A

feeling or showing deep solemn respect

167
Q

Homage

A

special honor or respect shown

168
Q

Abreast

A

side by side and facing the same way

169
Q

Creed

A

a brief authoritative formula of religious belief

170
Q

Despotism

A

the exercise of absolute power (negative)

171
Q

Furtively

A

secretively

172
Q

Holistic

A

characterized by the belief that parts of something are interconnected and can be explained only by reference to the whole

173
Q

Isovolumetric process

A

happens at constant volume - no work is done on the gas or by the gas (W =0)

174
Q

Isobaric change

A

happens at constant pressure, the work is done (W = p△V)

175
Q

Heat transferred: Q = △U + W

A
  • The greater the heat transferred, the greater the change in entropy
176
Q

△S = △Q/T

A
  • △Q = heat absorbed
177
Q

0 degrees C = ____ K

A

0 degrees C = 273.15 K

Direct proportionality only holds if the temperature is measured in Kelvins and not if it is measured in Celcius

178
Q

Adiabatic process

A

one that occurs without heat exchange between the system and the surroundings (Q =0)

179
Q

W

A
  • Work done on surroundings = +

- Work done on system = -

180
Q

Q

A
  • Heat supplied/added to the system = +

- Heat supplied the surroundings = -

181
Q

First law of thermodynamics

A
  • Change in internal energy of a system = △U = Q - W
182
Q

Isothermal process

A

Isothermal process

Boyle’s law = when has is undergoing changes in pressure and volume at constant temperature, PV = constant

183
Q

Crash Course: reading strategy

A
  • Read slowly and visualize in your mind!
    • Chat with the author and map what you learn about them
    • Imagine explaining to 3rd grader - rephrasing passage and questions
    • Be on the lookout for any repeated ideas
    • Least awful answer
    • Consistent strategy
184
Q

CARs

A

question are important

- Action words

185
Q

Splice acceptor site

A

allows following exon to be omitted

186
Q

Introns

A

noncoding removed sequence

187
Q

Adhesion proteins

A

assist in folding parts of a protein to stabilize them

- E.g.Heat shock proteins = function to stabilize and refold proteins

188
Q

Clathrin

A

forms vesicles to assist in transport within cells

189
Q

Chemiosmosis

A

used to generate 90% of the ATP made during aerobic glucose catabolism.

- Also used in photosynthesis to harness the energy of sunlight in the process of photophosphorylation
- During chemiosmosis, the free energy from the series of reactions that make up the ETC is used to hydrogen ions across the membrane, establishing an electrochemical gradient
190
Q

Medullary portion of the collecting duct

A

latter portion where glomerular filtrate reaches its highest concentration

191
Q

Reactions can usually be influenced by 2 factors

A

the relative stability of the products (i.e. thermodynamic factors)a nd the rate of product formation (i.e. kinetic factors)
- Measuring activity of an enzyme -> we want to focus on the kinetics of the reaction

192
Q

Transcription factor

A

protein that controls the rate of transcription of genetic information from DNA
First binds to the promotor region and then help recruit the RNA polymerase

193
Q

DNA binding proteins

A

help to regulate protein production, cell growth and division, and storing DNA inside the nucleus
E.g. Histones, repressors, and activators all bind to DNA

194
Q

Molecules that are _____,____,______ are more likely to diffuse through the membrane

A

planar, nonpolar, and hydrophobic

195
Q

Lipid Rafts

A

specialized microdomains in the membrane - areas of high cholesterol concentration in the membrane where the composition of the proteins, carbohydrates and different lipids differ from the rest of the membrane

196
Q

First step of the formation of urine

A

the glomerular filtration in the glomerulus (site in the nephron where fluid and solutes are filtered out of the blood to form a glomerular filtrate) -> pushes solutes out of the blood by pressure

197
Q

rRNA

A

building blocks of ribosomes

198
Q

Growth arrest, G0

A

extended G1 phase where the cell stops growing - interphase
- Not actively preparing to divide in this phase
Quiescent stage that occurs when cells exit the cell cycle

199
Q

Pericytes

A

elongated contractile cells

200
Q

Endothelial cells

A

the cells that are in direct contact with blood and the surrounding matrix - important role in gas exchange

201
Q

Smooth muscle

A

responsible for involuntary movement - on the walls of major organs

202
Q

Fibroblasts

A

cells that generate any connective tissue that the body needs

203
Q

Viruses

A

cannot replicate by themselves and must infect a host cell to hijack their reproductive machinery to replicate

204
Q

Nucleic acid linkage

A

5’-3’ phosphodiester linkage
- Phosphate groups form bonds between the 3rd carbon (3’) of the ribose sugar of one base and the 5th carbon (5’) of the ribose sugars of the other base, forming phosphate backbone of a DNA strand

205
Q

Phosphodiester bond

A

linkage that occurs when two hydroxyl groups in a phosphate molecule react with hydroxyl groups on ribose sugar to form 2 ester bonds

206
Q

Glucocorticoids

A

set of steroid hormones that are synthesized in the adrenal cortex and regulate glucose metabolism

207
Q

Cortisol functions to

A

mobilize amino acids from muscle tissue

208
Q

Gluconeogenesis

A

synthesis of new glucose molecules from pyruvate, lactate, glycerol, or the amino acids alanine or glutamine
- Process takes place primarily in the liver during periods of low glucose

209
Q

Endomembrane system

A

set of membrane-bound organelles that are involved mainly in the modification and transportation of proteins

- Includes nuclear envelope, golgi apparatus, endoplasmic reticulum, vesicles and lysosomes
- Cytoplasm is not part of but surrounds the endomembrane system
210
Q

Diabetes

A

Increased blood sugar and a compromised ability to take up glucose, can increase appetite, frequent urination, sweet urine, constant thirst, weight loss, fatigue

211
Q

Helicase

A

unwinds DNA for replication

212
Q

DNA replication is semiconservative

A

half of the resulting DNA is old and half is new

213
Q

State dependency effect

A

phenomenon where people will learn something in a particular state so they recall information better in that particular state

214
Q

Misinformation effect

A

retroactive interference when old memories are changed by new ones sometimes so much so that the original memory is forgotten
- Happens when a person’s recall of memories becomes less accurate because of additional information following the event

215
Q

Dual-coding effect

A

verbal and visual information are processed differently

- Utilizing both while learning, information can be learned and internalized better

216
Q

Source monitoring error

A

a memory error in which the specific source of memory is incorrectly attributed to some specific recollected experience

217
Q

Selective forgetting

A

recalling things that are more consistent with the participants own thoughts and ideas

218
Q

Piaget’s stages of intellectual (or cognitive) development:

Sensorimotor

A
  • Sensorimotor (birth - 18-24months)
    ○ Object permanence - memory forming
    ○ Explore with mouth
    ○ Talk - symbolic abilities
219
Q

Piaget’s stages of intellectual (or cognitive) development:

Preoperational

A 
(18-24months - 7years)
		○ Think about things symbolically 
		○ Memory + imagination developed
		○ Past, present, future understanding
		○ Intuition less logic 
		○ Engage in make belief
220
Q

Piaget’s stages of intellectual (or cognitive) development:

Concrete operational

A

(7-11yrs)
○ Logic and concrete reasoning
○ Realize own thoughts and feelings are unique and make not be shared by others

221
Q

Piaget’s stages of intellectual (or cognitive) development:

A

(11-adulthood)
○ Abstract concepts
Creative

222
Q

Psychodynamic

A

relates childhood events to our adult lives

223
Q

Behaviorist

A

considers actions as being responses to external stimuli

- Change in bodily sensation produces a behavioral response - fear

224
Q

Humanistic

A

an individual’s subjective free will is the most important determinant of behavior

225
Q

Discriminative stimulus

A

used to get a specific response consistently in the presence of a stimulus
- Stimulus discrimination involves being able to differentiate between a specific stimulus and a similar stimulus

226
Q

Social facilitation

A

improvement in individual performance when working with other people rather than alone

227
Q

Ethnographic methods

A

studies people or cultures in their own environment, in real social settings

228
Q

Gentrification

A

occurs when members of the middle and upper classes enter and renovate city areas that have been historically less affluent while the poor urban underclass is forced, by resulting price pressures, to leave those neighborhoods for increasingly decaying portions of the city

- Increased neighborhood stratification
- Tax increase
229
Q

Erikson’s stages of psychosocial Development

A
  • Based on Freud’s psychosocial theory
    • We are motivated by the need to achieve competence in certain areas of our lives
    • 8 stages of development:
      ○ Infancy - basic trust vs. mistrust
      ○ Toddler - autonomy vs. shame and doubt
      ○ Preschool-age - initiative vs. guilt
      ○ School-age - industry vs. inferiority
      ○ Adolescence - identify vs. identity confusion
      ○ Young adulthood - intimacy vs. isolation
      ○ Middle age - generativity vs. stagnation
      ○ Older adulthood - integrity vs. despair
230
Q

things that flow

A

Gases and liquids both flow

231
Q

Flow = Q

A

Flow = Q = Av
- Q in = Q out
○ Conservation of matter = continuity
○ What flows in flows out

232
Q

Poiseuille’s Law

A
  • Change in pressure -> goes in the direction from larger pressure to the lower pressure
    ○ No change in pressure = no flow
    • r^4 in numerator (RMBR!!)
    • Denominator = 8nL
      ○ n = viscosity
      ○ L = length of tube
    • How much something flows depending on the conditions
233
Q

Hematocrit

A

red blood cells/total volume of blood (normally 45% RBCs)

- More red blood cells = more viscous blood = decreases flow

234
Q

Venturi effect

A

faster fluid = lower Pressure
High pressure = happy weather
Low pressure = bad weather = lots of wind (higher velocity)

235
Q

Venturi effect tornado

A

During a tornado - faster wind/lower pressure outside - higher pressure inside - windows can break towards outside

236
Q

Bernouli equation

A
  • Higher pressure in larger part of tube
    • Lower pressure in smaller part of tube -> velocity is a lot higher
    • Helps figure out what’s happening to the pressures and velocities as it is flowing
237
Q

Blood vessels vasoconstricting

A

you do not necessarily have a higher velocity because of vasoconstriction
- Flow is going to change from before constriction -> but the flow in and flow out will be the same

238
Q

Assimilation

A

process to adapt to a new culture

- E.g. language acquisition and learning about the social roles and rules of he newly adopted culture
- Usually presumes that an individual will not retain the norms that they previously held when they were younger
239
Q

Usurp

A

take (a position of power or importance) illegally or by force

240
Q

Nativist hypothesis

A

children have the innate biological ability to learn a language

241
Q

Extrinsically motivated behaviors

A

performed in order to receive something from others or avoid certain negative outcomes

242
Q

Divided attention

A

ability to attend to two different stimuli at the same time

243
Q

Automatic processing

A

processes that are quick and initiated involuntarily and automatically without active control

244
Q

Reference group

A

a group to which an individual or another group is compared

245
Q

Peer group

A

social group whose members have interests, social positions, and age in common

246
Q

Network redundancy

A

repetition of ties within a social network

247
Q

Role strain

A

stress or strain experienced by an individual when incompatible behavior, expectations, or obligations are associated with a single social role

248
Q

Role conflict

A

the conflict between or among the roles corresponding to two or more statuses held by one individual

249
Q

Dyads

A

social interaction in a dyad is typically more intense than in larger groups because neither member shares the other’s attention with anyone else

250
Q

Triads

A

more stable than dyad because one member can act as a mediator should the relationship between the other two become strained

251
Q

Financial system

A

permits the exchange of funds between market participants

252
Q

Economic system

A

related to production, resource allocation, and exchange and distribution of goods and services in the a society

253
Q

Class system

A

often synonymous to SES (social position determined by income, wealth, occupational prestige, and educational attainment)

254
Q

Caste system

A

prevents social mobility, used to establish separate classes of inhabitants based upon social position and employment functions in the community which was inherited and no room for social mobility

255
Q

lyase

A

breakdown of a covalent bond without water or oxidation (e.g. decarboxylase)

256
Q

transferase

A

breakdown of covalent bond using water (e.g. protease, phosphatase)

257
Q

hydrolase

A

transfer of functional group from one molecule to another

- E.g. phosphorylase, kinase

258
Q

Michaelis-menten equation can only be used to predict the rate of an enzyme catalyzed reaction when certain assumptions are met:

A
  1. Free ligand assumption [S]»[E]
    1. Steady-state assumption: the rate of product formation remains constant
    2. The irreversibility assumption: the products of the reaction do not breakdown into reactants
      - Assumption 2 & 3 only hold during the initial phase of the reaction
259
Q

Eluent

A

the solvent that carries the analyte

260
Q

pH of solution with [OH] = 4 x 10^-8M

A
  • Positive exponent - 0.5 (as long as base number is not 1)
    • 8 - 0.5 = 7.5 = pOH
    • 14 - 7.5 = 6.5 pH
261
Q

sin and cos values

A 
Sin90 = 1
cos0 = 1
Sin60 = 0.85
Cos30 = 0.85
Sin45 = 0.70
Cos45 = 0.70
Sin30 = 0.5
Cos60 = 0.5
Sin0 = 0
Cos90 = 0
262
Q

Number of sequence variations of n = number of different variables

A

Factorial!

n!

263
Q

Ionization energy

A

Ionization energy increase up and to the right on the periodic table due to the increase in effective nuclear charge

264
Q

2nd ionization energy

A

infer how removing a second electron will affect the stabilization of an atom in valence shell

265
Q

beneficence

A

the requirement to do good

266
Q

Nonmaleficence

A

do no harm

267
Q

autonomy

A

the right of an individual to make decisions for themselves

268
Q

justice

A

the need to consider only morally relevant differences between patients and to distribute healthcare resources fairly

269
Q

mean

A

the average of the data points; impacted heavily by outliers

270
Q

median

A

the central value of a data set; data split in half; not affected by outliers

271
Q

range

A

the difference between the largest and the smallest value in a set; impacted heavily by outliers

272
Q

standard deviation

A

a measure of how spread out values are from the mean; affected by outliers

273
Q

mutually exclusive

A

two events that cannot occur together

274
Q

independent

A

the probability of either event is not affected by the occurrence of the other

275
Q

probability of independent events
P(A and B) =
P(A or B) =

A

P(A and B) = PA x PB

P(A or B) = PA + PB - P(A and B)

276
Q

null hypothesis

A

a hypothesis of no difference - no significance

277
Q

confidence interval

A

a range of values believed to contain the true value with a given level of probability (confidence)

278
Q

Box plots

A

contain information about measures of central tendency and distribution; may be comparative or single

279
Q

intensity of sound

A

I = P/A = W/m^2

280
Q

Sound Level

A

10log(I/Io) = dB
increase of 10 dB is an increase in intensity by a factor of 10. an increase of 20 dB is an increase in intensity by a factor 100

281
Q

doppler effect

A

when a source and a detector move relative to one another, the perceived frequency of the sound received differs from the actual frequency emitted even though the source velocity and frequency is unchanged
f’ = f (v +/- vo)/(v+/-vs)

observer and detector moving closer:

  • (+) sign in numerator
  • (-) sign in the denominator

observer and detector moving apart:

  • (-) sign in the numerator
  • (+) sign in denominator
282
Q

refraction equation

A

n=c/v

n = v(in vacuum)/v(in material)

283
Q

Snell’s Law

A

n1sinθ1 =n2sinθ2
when n2>n1, light bends towards the normal
when n2

284
Q

optics equation

A

1/o + 1/i = 1/f = 1/r
any units may be used but must be consistent
works for thin spherical lenses

285
Q

concave mirror

object placed inside the focal length

A

the image formed behind the mirror, enlarged and virtual

286
Q

convex mirrors

regardless of the position of the object, a convex mirror forms only a

A

virtual upright image

287
Q

converging lens

object inside focal length

A

image formed is virtual, upright, and englarged

288
Q

converging lens

object outside of focal length

A

image formed is real and inverted

289
Q

converging lens

object at focal length

A

non image is formed

290
Q

magnification equation

A

m = -i/o

- inverted image has a negative m; erect image has a positive m

291
Q

magnification
|m| < 1 =
|m| > 1 =
|m| = 1 =

A

|m| < 1 = image reduced
|m| > 1 = image enlarged
|m| = 1 = image same size

292
Q

photoelectric effect

A 
atoms emitting light
E = hf = hc/λ
K = hf - W
- K is the maximum KE to eject an e-
- W (work function) is the minimum energy required to eject an e-
293
Q

Nuclear binding energy

mass defect =

A

(sum of the masses of nucleons in the nucleus) - (mass of nucleus) = mass defect
mass defect results from the conversion of matter to energy (E = mc^2) - the binding energy that holds the nucleons within the nucleus

294
Q

image produced by a diverging lens will always be

A

upright, virtual, and smaller

295
Q

visible spectrum

A

400nm (violet) - 700nm (red)

296
Q

UV

A

<400nm

297
Q

infrared

A

> 700nm

298
Q

trace decay theory

A

memories inevitably decay over time. memories are stored in particular pathways in the brain and that activation of those pathways (by recalling information actively) strengthens those pathways, but disuse of those pathways for a prolonged period of time causes the pathway to decay

299
Q

angular frequency (ω) of the oscillations

A

ω = 2πf = 2π/T

300
Q

dispersion

A

chromatic aberrations occur due to each wavelength of light having a different focal point as it passes through a lens
- using a compound lens made of a convex lens and a concave lens with two different refractive indexes ensures that chromatic aberration is corrected for all colours - converge at focal point of the lens

301
Q

diffraction

A

bending of light as it passes through a small opening

302
Q

image formed by a concave lens

A

virtual, upright, diminished, on the same side of the lens as the object

303
Q

for a curved mirror (concave or convex) - the relationship between the centre of curvature and the focal length =

A

C= 2f

304
Q

focal length, f

A

the distance between the centre of the lens and the focal point

305
Q

when an object is placed 2x the focal length from a convex lens, the image formed by the lens will be

A

real, inverted, and the same size as the object

306
Q

human eye lens image

A

real, inverted diminished

307
Q

lens power relationship with the focal length

A

inversely proportional

the shorter the focal length and greater the power, the greater the amount of refraction

308
Q

eukaryotic organisms contain __ and __ ribosomal subunits

A

contains 40S and 60S ribosomal subunits

309
Q

cell cycle

A

S (interphase) -> G2 -> M (mitosis) -> cytokinesis -> Go (cell cycle arrest) OR G1 -> back to S

310
Q

cell cycle

S phase

A

S phase = interphase, two identical sister chromatids are produced - cells duplicated

311
Q

cell cycle

G2

A

the cell double checks the duplicated chromosomes for error, making any needed repairs through homologous recombination

312
Q

cell cycle

M (mitosis)

A

the splitting of genetic material

313
Q

cell cycle

G1

A

before S phase and after cytokinesis

- cellular contents, excluding the chromosomes are duplicated

314
Q

pKa of E (glutamic acid) and D (aspartic acid)

A

~4

315
Q

pKa of R (arginine)

A

12

316
Q

pKa of K (lysine)

A

10.5

317
Q

pKa of H (histidine)

A

6

318
Q

pKa of N terminal and C terminal

A

N terminal = 9

C terminal = 2

319
Q

As pH increases, the functional groups will become ____ starting from ___ pKa to ___ pKa

A

deprotonated; lower; higher

MCAT (3 decks)

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