AAMC Test 1 set Flashcards
Cavernous
large cave or chamber
Critical point
point at which different phases of matter can exist simultaneously
Triple point
where solid, liquid, and gas can exist simultaneously
Phase boundary
transition point of matter
Bond formation
Bond formation is an exothermic process -> energy is release so -H
- Bond formation and bond breaking of the same atoms yield the same magnitude of energy but opposite signs
When matter is changing phase, it’s temperature is..
When matter is changing phase, it’s temperature is constant until the phase change is complete
Heat of vaporization
the amount of enthalpy added to a liquid to transform it into gas
Heat (or enthalpy) of fusion
amount of heat that is required to change a specific quantity of a substance from a solid to a liquid without increase in temperature and at constant pressure
Calorimetry
measure the transfer of heat in chemical reactions, physical changes, and phase changes
Electric fields
vector fields which have a magnitude and direction
- The direction of the magnetic field is the direction force will be exerted on a positive charge when placed in that field
A proton and electron are oppositely charged and will produce an attractive force on one another
- The attractive force experienced by each charge will be equal and opposite
- Acceleration of an object is equal to force/mass -> Due to the electron’s mass being smaller, it will experience a greater acceleration
To determine the magnitude of the acceleration that each charge experiences, we must know:
- Charge magnitude, charge mass, and distance between the charges
Coulomb’s Law
- F = k (q1q2/d^2)
-ase
protein enzyme
Enzymes that are not proteins
ribosome (made of RNA)
Catalyst/enzymes
lowers activation energy
- Vast majority of enzymes are reversible
Enzymes in glycolysis that are irreversible in physiological conditions:
Hexokinase (rxn 1), PFK (rxn 3), pyruvate kinase (rxn 10)
Vmax
maximum rate of enzyme activity - we never reach Vmax
- Asymptotic curve - curve gets closer but never reaches
Km
the amount of substrate required for the enzyme to work at 1/2 the maximum rate of enzyme
- The higher the km = the lower the affinity of the enzyme to the substrate
Hexokinase
high affinity, low kcat
Glucokinase
lower affinity high kcat
Kcat
catalytic rate- the max speed of one enzyme - how quickly can you work at maximum rate
Need enzymes with different affinities and efficiency to allow
Need enzymes with different affinities and efficiency to allow for adaptivity and balanced use of substrate throughout the body
Cooperative enzyme
Hill coefficient > +/-1
- E.g. hemoglobin - cooperatively binds to oxygen
Positive Hill coefficient = positive cooperativity = when binding of a ligand to an enzyme enhances the binding of additional ligand to that enzyme
Negative Hill Coefficient = negative cooperativity = when binding of a ligand to an enzyme inhibits the binding of additional ligand to that enzyme
Hill coefficient = 1
not cooperative enzyme
Michaelas Menton equation
Rate of enzyme equation
- V = (vmax [S])/([S] + Km)
Lineweaver burk plot
- More useful during lab to determine variables
- Y-intercept = 1/vmax
- X-intercept = -1/km
Competitive inhibitors
Competitive inhibitors look and act like the substrate
- Most effective when there is not a lot of substrate around
- Vmax is the same
Km increases - can be overcome by more substrates
Noncompetitive inhibitors
Noncompetitive inhibitors bind to allosteric site with or without substrate attached
- Decreases vmax - kcat decreases too - Km remains the same
Uncompetitive inhibitor
Uncompetitive inhibitor binds to enzyme substrate complex
- Decreases vmax - Decreases km - more sensitive to substrate
Lysogenic cycle
Lysogenic cycle = virus binds to genome
E.g. HIV = give lots of long terminal repeat for the virus to bind to instead of our own genome
Long terminal repeat
repeating region of genome
Suicide inhibitor
bind and break the enzyme - irreversible
- E.g. aspirin
Mixed inhibitor
when characteristics of different inhibitors are in one inhibitor
- E.g. inhibitor that can bind the enzyme with or without a substrate but preferentially works better when the substrate is bound => both noncompetitive and uncompetitive
Most efficient enzymes
high kcat and low km = kcat/km
An object will float in a liquid when the amount of liquid displaced weighs as much as the object
- Gravity on a different planet will change the mass of the liquid and object by the same amount so the object will float the same as on earth
Buoyant force
the weight of the water it displaces = weight of the object
Specific gravity of water =1
- Specific gravity < 1 = float
- Specific gravity > 1 = sink
- The denser the fluid, the more the displaced fluid will weigh
The amount of water the ice displaces is the same as the amount of water in the ice
explain
When it melts, the ice will take the same volume as the water it initially displaced and there will be no change in the water level of the beaker
Less dense liquids will be displaced more to achieve the…
same buoyant force as a denser liquid
The denser the liquid, the more the buoyant force
Sign of the source charge and sign of point charge only affects the
direction of the electric force
Coulomb’s Law
magnitude of the electrostatic force (Fe) is proportional to the product of the magnitude of the charges F=k0*q*Q/d^2 - F = electrostatic force - q = point charge - Q = source charge - d = distance away from source charge K0 = 9 x 10^9
Negative (-) change in electrical potential
the point charge moves from a position of higher electric potential to a position of lower electric potential
- Favorable direction of charge -> loses potential energy and gains kinetic energy during the movement - The point charge moves to its new location due to the force generated by the electric field on the charge -> object being moved will increase in velocity during its movement
Electric field
radiates out from a charge in field lines with strong and closer field lines towards the charge and les as it radiates out
Equation for determining electric field: E =k0Q/r^2
○ Q = source charge
○ r = distance between the charges
○ K0= coulomb’s constant = 9 x 10^9 Nm^2/C^2
Electric force
force that pushes apart two like charges or that pulls together two unlike charges
- Size of attraction decrease as the distance between them increases - Electric field x charge = force
Electrical potential energy
energy that is needed to move a charge against an electric field - associated with a particle with a charge
- Need more energy to move a charge further in the electric field - Energy used to move particle away from the plate is stored in the particle as electrical potential energy - It is the potential that the particle has to move when it is let go
Electrical potential
joules/coulomb = the difference in potential energy per unit charge between two locations in an electric field - associated with position in space
- How much work needed per unit charge
If we place a positive charge near a negative plate - electrical potential is
low
If we place a positive charge further from the negative plate - electrical potential is
high
If we have two plates, one negative and one positive, the electrical potentials
the electrical potentials of the positive and negative plates combine
○ Positive charge near the negative plate and far from the positive plate - electrical potential is very low
○ Positive charge near the positive plate and far from the negative plate - electrical potential is very high
Can find electrical potential energy
PE = electrical potential (V) x charge ©
- Change in electrical potential of a point charge
- Path does not matter
- Electrical potential difference = V = k0*Q/r
○ Q = value of source charge
○ r = distance between the source charge and the point charge
Electrical potential is not voltage since voltage
change in electrical potential in two points in space
Gravitational force can only act
Gravitational force can only act to attract both spheres towards each other
Law of conservation of charge
net charge of an isolated system remains constant
Work is independent of __
path
Power
Power = work/time = force x velocity
Work in electrostatics
W = qEd
- When displacement is the same for different paths of a point charge along a constant field, the energy expended is equivalent
Triboelectric effect
exchange of electrons -> leading to attractive forces between molecules
Coulomb
measure of charge
- 1 coulomb = 6.24 x 10^18 electrons - e = 1.6 x 10^-19 C
Newton’s law of gravitation
- FG = Gm1m2/r^2
- Similar pattern to coulombs law
Insulators
when charges are added, charges cannot move in an insulator so they are stuck
- composed of atoms and molecules where the positively charged nucleus are generally stationary (solid)
- Electrons cannot jump from atom to atom
- Atoms can become polarized to a favorable direction when in contact with something electric or polarized though the atoms cannot move
E.g. wood, plastic
Conductors
when charges are added, charges will migrate away from each other to the edges of the conductors since like charges repel
- Electrons can jump from atom to atom - composed of atoms and molecules where the positively charged nucleus are generally stationary (solid) - E.g. gold, silver, copper
Can charge conducting rods by
physically touching and the charges spread to each other
Charge by induction
can charge by putting two conducting rods close in proximity to each other and charges will leave since it is repelled by the other conductor into the ground (can deposit or give infinite amount of e-) -> rod has a net amount of charge
Boltzmann said that when temperature is high
Boltzmann said that when temperature is high the average KE of those molecules are large - feels hotter when KE is high
Ideal gas law variables - smaller gas molecules
- PV = nRT
- P = pressure in Pascals
- V = volume m^3
- n = number of moles
- R = gas constant = 8.31 J/mole*K
- T = temperature in K
In order to obey ideal gas law
we would minimize the effects of intermolecular interactions and molecular sizes of these gases
- Ideal gas conditions in the environment - high temperature (lots of KE to move around and not be experiencing forces from each other) - Low pressure (less inhibited to move around)
Properties of ideal gases
to allow stable predictions of pressure, volume, and temperature
- Collisions between gas molecules are completely elastic - no energy lost during collisions - Gas molecules do not interact with each other except during collisions - Volume occupied by molecules is negligible compared to the volume occupied by the gas
Boltzmann’a ideal gas law
focuses on number of molecules to get a more microscopic estimate of gas law
- PV = N*kB*T - P = pascals - V = volume in m^3 - N = # of molecules - kB = boltzmann's constant = n/N*R = 1.38 x 10^-23 - n = number of moles - N = number of molecules - n/N = 1/Avogadro's number - R = gas constant - T = temperature K
S = kB*lnW
- S = entropy
- kB = boltzmann’s constant = 1.38 x 10^-23
- W = # of microstates = how many ways to change microstate to maintain the same macrostate
Total internal energy (KE) for a monatomic ideal gas
U= (3/2)PV = (3/2)NkT = (3/2)nRT - Work done by gas = energy leaves - Work done on gas = energy gains - △U = Q + W - Q = heat W = work
W = P*△V
- Pressure is constant - heat while expanding to maintain pressure as constant
Heat molar capacity, C = Q/n△T
how much temperature increases after a certain amount of heat is added
Heat capacity at constant volume
Cv = △U/△T = (3/2)PV/△T = (3/2)NkB = (3/2)nR
- Molar heat capacity at constant volume = (3/2)R
Heat capacity at constant pressure = Cp
Cp = Q/△T = (5/2)nR
- Molar heat capacity at constant pressure = (5/2)R - Difference between the Cv and Cp = nR
Kinetic Molecular Theory of Gases
macroscopic properties (P,V,T) of gas are the result of microscopic properties of the gas molecules (x (position),v (speed)) - Elastic = does not loose KE after collision and bounces back with same velocity
P = F/A
force/area = pressure
F = △p/△t
F = △p/△t = m△v/△t = mv^2/L
- △p = change in momentum = m△v - m = mass - △v = change in velocity - △t = change in time
total thermal energy of monatomic gas
- (3/2)PV = N*KEavg = total KE
- Utotal = (3/2)PV
- Utotal = (3/2)NkBT
- Utotal = (3/2)nRT
Average kinetic energy of 1 ideal gas molecule: KEavg
KEavg = (3/2)T
Real gases experience intermolecular forces
Real gases experience intermolecular forces between gas molecules (van der waals forces)
- Real gases molecules possess mass - Real gases have lower pressure and higher volume compared to ideal gases
Positive correlation in equations
on different sides of the equal sign on equations
negative correlation in equations
on the same side of the equation
Boyle’s Law
- P1V1 = P2V2
Innocuous
not harmful or offensive; harmless, safe
Dissecting research figure: TAUT
- Title
- Axes/variables
- Units
- Trends - statistical significant data points
Error bars
range of possible true values -> only to disprove significance
○ If bars overlap, the relationship is not significant
○ Worse case scenario when there is no p-value asterisks
-/-
-/- = both allele knockout = completely knocked out alleles from genetics
Strategy for MCAT Questions:
- Read the question
- Simplify -> what is the question really asking?
- Identify necessary passage info and/or background knowledge
○ Whenever possible, make predictions - Approach answer choices + be PESSIMISTIC
○ Where are the bad answers - look for things that are wrong
Complex II produces electron from
NADH2
Amino acids that can be charges
- (Dragons Eat)- (Knights Riding Horses)+
- Histidine is similar to physiological pH - can be neutral or positive
Electron transport chain
mitochondria
- Redox reactions throughout the chain, ending with the reduction of oxygen into water
- As the electrons through molecules of higher reduction potential, energy is released
○ Energy released is coupled to pump protons across into the intermembrane space
- The protons in the intermembrane space are so desperate to leave that they go through ATP synthase and generate ATP
triangles side lengths and degrees
- Wx = W sinθ
Wy = W cosθ
1Mkg (mega kilogram)
1 x 10^6 kg
Head to tail rule
when subtracting vectors
- Understand what needs to be added and reverse the direction of the arrow
The units of the rate constant, k, depend on the
overall order of the reaction
- K[A]^m[B]^n
- Order of reaction = m + n
○ When m + n = 0, units are M/s
Ionization energy
the amount of energy required for an atom to give up an electron
- In a spontaneous redox reaction, the atom which has the lowest ionization energy is the one which is spontaneously ionized via oxidation
acid dissociation constant, Ka
The extent dissociation of an acid can be predicted by the acid dissociation constant, Ka
- Ka is related to the base dissociation constant, Kb, of its conjugate base, by the equation Ka x Kb = 10^-14
Electrolytic cell
a battery applies a voltage in order to cause the electrode with higher reduction potential to undergo oxidation, and the electrode with the lower reduction potential to be reduced
Galvanic cell
a battery applies a voltage in order to cause the electrode with lower reduction potential to undergo oxidation, and the electrode with the higher reduction potential to be reduced
Electron flow vs. current flow
Electron flow from anode to cathode, while current flow is from cathode to anode
Electrolyte
a substance that dissolves in a polar solvent (typically water) and separates into cations and anions and conducts electricity
- many electrolytes are salts (the product of reacting acid with a base) - Some electrolytes are acids and bases (which ionize in solution) - The greater the extent to which a substance can dissociate into cations and anions, the greater its ability to conduct electricity
Strong electrolyte
is a substance which is completely soluble in its solvent such as the salt NaCl or the strong acid HCl
- Strong acids and bases are strong electrolytes because they dissociate completely in solution
Solid metals
Solid metals conduct electricity through the movement of free electrons
Ineluctable
unable to be resisted or avoided; inescapable
Anachronistic
belonging to a period other than that being portrayed
Plight
a dangerous, difficult, or otherwise unfortunate situation
Impetus
the force or energy with which a body moves
Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLPs)
different lengths of nucleotides following restriction enzyme digestion since different individuals will have different sequences in the location of cleavage sites
Gel Electrophoresis
separates DNA fragments by size
Gene cloning
often uses methods that require gel electrophoresis
Restriction enzyme
break up the phosphodiester bonds in the middle of the DNA strand - endonuclease
- Need palindromic sequence in which the coding 5’–>3’ and the template 5’–>3’ strand must read the same
- Cleave double stranded DNA
No effect on promoter region
Exonuclease
cleave phosphodiester bonds at the ends of a DNA strand
Acyltransferase
transfer acyl chains
Gas chromatography
samples being vaporized and passed through a liquid or solid stationary phase using a gaseous mobile phase
- Stationary phase lets polar molecules elute more slowly - The molecules with the lowest boiling points come out of the column first (first peak) - The molecules with higher boiling points come out of column last (last peak)
SN2
there will be ab inversion of configuration
Enzymes
stabilizing transition state and lowers activation energy of the reaction by providing the binding energy
O-18
natural stable isotope of oxygen and one of the environmental isotopes
Strong acid
- HCl = hydrochloric acid
- HBr = hydrobromic acid
- HI = hydroiodic acid
- HNO3 = nitric acid
- HClO3 = chloric acid
- HClO4 = perchloric acid
- H2SO4 = sulfuric acid
Strong Bases
- LiOH = lithium hydroxide
- NaOH = sodium hydroxide
- KOH = Potassium hydroxide
- RbOH = rubidium hydroxide
- CsOH = Cesium hydroxide
- Ca(OH)2 = calcium hydroxide
- Sr(OH)2 = strontium hydroxide
- Ba(OH)2 = barium hydroxide
Index of refraction = n = c/v
- C = speed of light in vacuum = 3 x 10^8 m/s
V = speed of light in the material
The energy of a photon
The energy of a photon = plancks’s constant x freqeuncy of EM wave
E = hf
Terahertz = THz
1012 Hz
Work = power x time
Work
power x time
Cysteine
Cysteine residues get oxidized to form disulfide bonds with oxidants
Break disulfide bonds with
reducing agents
At higher pH side chains of some residues..
At lower pH, side chains of some residues…
At higher pH side chains of some residues deprotonate and become negatively charged
At lower pH, side chains of some residues protonate
Blood is incompressible
the rate of flow into an area must equal the rate of flow out of an area
Equation of continuity
can show how much speed of a liquid increases if it is forced to flow through a smaller area
Larger cross-sectional area = decreased velocity
Capillaries
smaller than other blood vessels and have single-celled walls that are not elastic
Factors that increase resistance of flow
- Increase Vessel length
- Decrease Vessel radius
- Increase Viscosity of liquid
Steric number 2
linear (180 degrees and 0 one pairs)
Steric number 3
trigonal planar (0LP, 120), bent or angular (1LP, <120)
Steric number 4
tetrahedral (0LP, 109), trigonal pyramid (1LP, <109), bent or angular (2LP, «109)
Steric number 5
trigonal bipyramid (0LP, 120+90), sawhorse or seesaw (1LP, <90 +<120), T-shape (2LP, <90), linear (3LP, 180)
Steric number 6
octahedral (0LP, 90), square pyramid (1LP, <90), square planar (2LP, 90), T-shape (3LP, <90), linear (4LP, 180)
Valence bond theory
the central atom requires the hybridization of six atomic orbitals
Gram-mole
old way to refer to the molar mass of a substance
Ideal gas
gas whose randomly-moving particles exhibit no attractive interactions
- At high temperatures and low pressures, gases behave close to ideally - Particles are far apart that they do not exert attractive forces upon one another - Not in real life
LipA
lysosomal lipase Lipase = hydrolase enzymes that catalyze the hydrolysis of fats - Subclass of esterases
Change in net charge
- E.g. K112D (+1 to -1) => -1 -(+1) = -2
a-1,4-Glycosidic bonds
Linear chains of glycogen are bound by a-1,4-Glycosidic bonds (glycogen synthase)
a-1,6-Glycosidic bonds
Branches of glycogen chains have a-1,6-glycosidic bond (glycogen branching enzyme)
Ribose
pentofuranose/aldopentose in which the C2 and C3 hydroxyl groups are cis, and the C3 hydroxyl group and the C4 hydroxymethyl group are trans
Kinetics
how quickly a reaction is going to happen
- Rate laws = the rate of something occurring
Thermodynamics
is it spontaneous?
When product is favored -> Keq >1
- Does not mean that reaction goes forward - if there is already a lot of product, it may need to go backwards (need to know concentration of products and reactants to know the direction of reaction)
- Keq = [product]/[reactant] -> where the reaction wants to go - equilibrium``
Balanced between product and reactant -> Keq
Keq = 1
Liquid and solid cannot change concentration
so they are not included in equilibrium (Keq)
Aqueous and gas are included in equilibrium
Reaction Quotient = Q
Reaction Quotient = Q = [product]/[reactant]
- Concentration of product and reactant right now - Changes from many different factors - chatelier's principle
the only thing that affects Keq
Temperature
Kd
Keq for dissociation
- E.g. with enzyme -> higher kd = more enzyme + substrate than enzyme-substrate complex => low affinity for substrate for the enzyme
Opposite trend for Ka (keq for association) since Ka is the reverse of kd
Ksp
keq for stuff dissolving - solubility
- Q for Ksp = Ion Product - Ksp > IP => unsaturated product -> dissolves (forward rxn) - Ksp = IP => saturated solution - Ksp > IP => supersaturated -> precipitation occurs (reverse rxn) - Heat => Ksp goes up -> dissolves more
Gas can be dissolved in water
- Colder water -> holds more gas
- Warmer water -> releases gas more
Solids dissolved in water
- Colder water -> less dissolution
- Warmer water -> more dissolution
Kc
keq for combustion
Alpha decay
lose 2 protons and 2 neutrons
- Atomic mass (A) decreases by 4 - Atomic number (Z) decreases by 2
Beta - decay
loses 1 electron
- Atomic mass (A) is unchanged - Atomic number (Z) increase by 1
Beta + decay
loses 1 proton
- Atomic mass (A) is unchanged - Atomic number (Z) decreases by 1
Gamma emission
relaxation and gamma radiation is emitted (high energy photon by the nucleus)
- No change in atomic mass (A) or atomic number (Z)
Image height/object height
lens image distance/object lens distance = i/o
1/f = 1/o + 1/I
Stimulated nuclear fission
emission of neutrons by the nucleus
Homogenous catalyst
those that occupy the same phase as the reaction mixture
- Catalyst mixes into the reaction mixture - allowing a very high degree of interaction between the catalyst and reactant molecules
Common ion effect
occurs when an ionic compound comes into contact with a substance sharing a common ion
Tumultuous
making a loud, confused noise
Obsequious
obedient or attentive to an excessive or servile degree
Reverent
feeling or showing deep solemn respect
Homage
special honor or respect shown
Abreast
side by side and facing the same way
Creed
a brief authoritative formula of religious belief
Despotism
the exercise of absolute power (negative)
Furtively
secretively
Holistic
characterized by the belief that parts of something are interconnected and can be explained only by reference to the whole
Isovolumetric process
happens at constant volume - no work is done on the gas or by the gas (W =0)
Isobaric change
happens at constant pressure, the work is done (W = p△V)
Heat transferred: Q = △U + W
- The greater the heat transferred, the greater the change in entropy
△S = △Q/T
- △Q = heat absorbed
0 degrees C = ____ K
0 degrees C = 273.15 K
Direct proportionality only holds if the temperature is measured in Kelvins and not if it is measured in Celcius
Adiabatic process
one that occurs without heat exchange between the system and the surroundings (Q =0)
W
- Work done on surroundings = +
- Work done on system = -
Q
- Heat supplied/added to the system = +
- Heat supplied the surroundings = -
First law of thermodynamics
- Change in internal energy of a system = △U = Q - W
Isothermal process
Isothermal process
Boyle’s law = when has is undergoing changes in pressure and volume at constant temperature, PV = constant
Crash Course: reading strategy
- Read slowly and visualize in your mind!
- Chat with the author and map what you learn about them
- Imagine explaining to 3rd grader - rephrasing passage and questions
- Be on the lookout for any repeated ideas
- Least awful answer
- Consistent strategy
CARs
question are important
- Action words
Splice acceptor site
allows following exon to be omitted
Introns
noncoding removed sequence
Adhesion proteins
assist in folding parts of a protein to stabilize them
- E.g.Heat shock proteins = function to stabilize and refold proteins
Clathrin
forms vesicles to assist in transport within cells
Chemiosmosis
used to generate 90% of the ATP made during aerobic glucose catabolism.
- Also used in photosynthesis to harness the energy of sunlight in the process of photophosphorylation - During chemiosmosis, the free energy from the series of reactions that make up the ETC is used to hydrogen ions across the membrane, establishing an electrochemical gradient
Medullary portion of the collecting duct
latter portion where glomerular filtrate reaches its highest concentration
Reactions can usually be influenced by 2 factors
the relative stability of the products (i.e. thermodynamic factors)a nd the rate of product formation (i.e. kinetic factors)
- Measuring activity of an enzyme -> we want to focus on the kinetics of the reaction
Transcription factor
protein that controls the rate of transcription of genetic information from DNA
First binds to the promotor region and then help recruit the RNA polymerase
DNA binding proteins
help to regulate protein production, cell growth and division, and storing DNA inside the nucleus
E.g. Histones, repressors, and activators all bind to DNA
Molecules that are _____,____,______ are more likely to diffuse through the membrane
planar, nonpolar, and hydrophobic
Lipid Rafts
specialized microdomains in the membrane - areas of high cholesterol concentration in the membrane where the composition of the proteins, carbohydrates and different lipids differ from the rest of the membrane
First step of the formation of urine
the glomerular filtration in the glomerulus (site in the nephron where fluid and solutes are filtered out of the blood to form a glomerular filtrate) -> pushes solutes out of the blood by pressure
rRNA
building blocks of ribosomes
Growth arrest, G0
extended G1 phase where the cell stops growing - interphase
- Not actively preparing to divide in this phase
Quiescent stage that occurs when cells exit the cell cycle
Pericytes
elongated contractile cells
Endothelial cells
the cells that are in direct contact with blood and the surrounding matrix - important role in gas exchange
Smooth muscle
responsible for involuntary movement - on the walls of major organs
Fibroblasts
cells that generate any connective tissue that the body needs
Viruses
cannot replicate by themselves and must infect a host cell to hijack their reproductive machinery to replicate
Nucleic acid linkage
5’-3’ phosphodiester linkage
- Phosphate groups form bonds between the 3rd carbon (3’) of the ribose sugar of one base and the 5th carbon (5’) of the ribose sugars of the other base, forming phosphate backbone of a DNA strand
Phosphodiester bond
linkage that occurs when two hydroxyl groups in a phosphate molecule react with hydroxyl groups on ribose sugar to form 2 ester bonds
Glucocorticoids
set of steroid hormones that are synthesized in the adrenal cortex and regulate glucose metabolism
Cortisol functions to
mobilize amino acids from muscle tissue
Gluconeogenesis
synthesis of new glucose molecules from pyruvate, lactate, glycerol, or the amino acids alanine or glutamine
- Process takes place primarily in the liver during periods of low glucose
Endomembrane system
set of membrane-bound organelles that are involved mainly in the modification and transportation of proteins
- Includes nuclear envelope, golgi apparatus, endoplasmic reticulum, vesicles and lysosomes - Cytoplasm is not part of but surrounds the endomembrane system
Diabetes
Increased blood sugar and a compromised ability to take up glucose, can increase appetite, frequent urination, sweet urine, constant thirst, weight loss, fatigue
Helicase
unwinds DNA for replication
DNA replication is semiconservative
half of the resulting DNA is old and half is new
State dependency effect
phenomenon where people will learn something in a particular state so they recall information better in that particular state
Misinformation effect
retroactive interference when old memories are changed by new ones sometimes so much so that the original memory is forgotten
- Happens when a person’s recall of memories becomes less accurate because of additional information following the event
Dual-coding effect
verbal and visual information are processed differently
- Utilizing both while learning, information can be learned and internalized better
Source monitoring error
a memory error in which the specific source of memory is incorrectly attributed to some specific recollected experience
Selective forgetting
recalling things that are more consistent with the participants own thoughts and ideas
Piaget’s stages of intellectual (or cognitive) development:
Sensorimotor
- Sensorimotor (birth - 18-24months)
○ Object permanence - memory forming
○ Explore with mouth
○ Talk - symbolic abilities
Piaget’s stages of intellectual (or cognitive) development:
Preoperational
(18-24months - 7years) ○ Think about things symbolically ○ Memory + imagination developed ○ Past, present, future understanding ○ Intuition less logic ○ Engage in make belief
Piaget’s stages of intellectual (or cognitive) development:
Concrete operational
(7-11yrs)
○ Logic and concrete reasoning
○ Realize own thoughts and feelings are unique and make not be shared by others
Piaget’s stages of intellectual (or cognitive) development:
(11-adulthood)
○ Abstract concepts
Creative
Psychodynamic
relates childhood events to our adult lives
Behaviorist
considers actions as being responses to external stimuli
- Change in bodily sensation produces a behavioral response - fear
Humanistic
an individual’s subjective free will is the most important determinant of behavior
Discriminative stimulus
used to get a specific response consistently in the presence of a stimulus
- Stimulus discrimination involves being able to differentiate between a specific stimulus and a similar stimulus
Social facilitation
improvement in individual performance when working with other people rather than alone
Ethnographic methods
studies people or cultures in their own environment, in real social settings
Gentrification
occurs when members of the middle and upper classes enter and renovate city areas that have been historically less affluent while the poor urban underclass is forced, by resulting price pressures, to leave those neighborhoods for increasingly decaying portions of the city
- Increased neighborhood stratification - Tax increase
Erikson’s stages of psychosocial Development
- Based on Freud’s psychosocial theory
- We are motivated by the need to achieve competence in certain areas of our lives
- 8 stages of development:
○ Infancy - basic trust vs. mistrust
○ Toddler - autonomy vs. shame and doubt
○ Preschool-age - initiative vs. guilt
○ School-age - industry vs. inferiority
○ Adolescence - identify vs. identity confusion
○ Young adulthood - intimacy vs. isolation
○ Middle age - generativity vs. stagnation
○ Older adulthood - integrity vs. despair
things that flow
Gases and liquids both flow
Flow = Q
Flow = Q = Av
- Q in = Q out
○ Conservation of matter = continuity
○ What flows in flows out
Poiseuille’s Law
- Change in pressure -> goes in the direction from larger pressure to the lower pressure
○ No change in pressure = no flow- r^4 in numerator (RMBR!!)
- Denominator = 8nL
○ n = viscosity
○ L = length of tube - How much something flows depending on the conditions
Hematocrit
red blood cells/total volume of blood (normally 45% RBCs)
- More red blood cells = more viscous blood = decreases flow
Venturi effect
faster fluid = lower Pressure
High pressure = happy weather
Low pressure = bad weather = lots of wind (higher velocity)
Venturi effect tornado
During a tornado - faster wind/lower pressure outside - higher pressure inside - windows can break towards outside
Bernouli equation
- Higher pressure in larger part of tube
- Lower pressure in smaller part of tube -> velocity is a lot higher
- Helps figure out what’s happening to the pressures and velocities as it is flowing
Blood vessels vasoconstricting
you do not necessarily have a higher velocity because of vasoconstriction
- Flow is going to change from before constriction -> but the flow in and flow out will be the same
Assimilation
process to adapt to a new culture
- E.g. language acquisition and learning about the social roles and rules of he newly adopted culture - Usually presumes that an individual will not retain the norms that they previously held when they were younger
Usurp
take (a position of power or importance) illegally or by force
Nativist hypothesis
children have the innate biological ability to learn a language
Extrinsically motivated behaviors
performed in order to receive something from others or avoid certain negative outcomes
Divided attention
ability to attend to two different stimuli at the same time
Automatic processing
processes that are quick and initiated involuntarily and automatically without active control
Reference group
a group to which an individual or another group is compared
Peer group
social group whose members have interests, social positions, and age in common
Network redundancy
repetition of ties within a social network
Role strain
stress or strain experienced by an individual when incompatible behavior, expectations, or obligations are associated with a single social role
Role conflict
the conflict between or among the roles corresponding to two or more statuses held by one individual
Dyads
social interaction in a dyad is typically more intense than in larger groups because neither member shares the other’s attention with anyone else
Triads
more stable than dyad because one member can act as a mediator should the relationship between the other two become strained
Financial system
permits the exchange of funds between market participants
Economic system
related to production, resource allocation, and exchange and distribution of goods and services in the a society
Class system
often synonymous to SES (social position determined by income, wealth, occupational prestige, and educational attainment)
Caste system
prevents social mobility, used to establish separate classes of inhabitants based upon social position and employment functions in the community which was inherited and no room for social mobility
lyase
breakdown of a covalent bond without water or oxidation (e.g. decarboxylase)
transferase
breakdown of covalent bond using water (e.g. protease, phosphatase)
hydrolase
transfer of functional group from one molecule to another
- E.g. phosphorylase, kinase
Michaelis-menten equation can only be used to predict the rate of an enzyme catalyzed reaction when certain assumptions are met:
- Free ligand assumption [S]»[E]
- Steady-state assumption: the rate of product formation remains constant
- The irreversibility assumption: the products of the reaction do not breakdown into reactants
- Assumption 2 & 3 only hold during the initial phase of the reaction
Eluent
the solvent that carries the analyte
pH of solution with [OH] = 4 x 10^-8M
- Positive exponent - 0.5 (as long as base number is not 1)
- 8 - 0.5 = 7.5 = pOH
- 14 - 7.5 = 6.5 pH
sin and cos values
Sin90 = 1 cos0 = 1 Sin60 = 0.85 Cos30 = 0.85 Sin45 = 0.70 Cos45 = 0.70 Sin30 = 0.5 Cos60 = 0.5 Sin0 = 0 Cos90 = 0
Number of sequence variations of n = number of different variables
Factorial!
n!
Ionization energy
Ionization energy increase up and to the right on the periodic table due to the increase in effective nuclear charge
2nd ionization energy
infer how removing a second electron will affect the stabilization of an atom in valence shell
beneficence
the requirement to do good
Nonmaleficence
do no harm
autonomy
the right of an individual to make decisions for themselves
justice
the need to consider only morally relevant differences between patients and to distribute healthcare resources fairly
mean
the average of the data points; impacted heavily by outliers
median
the central value of a data set; data split in half; not affected by outliers
range
the difference between the largest and the smallest value in a set; impacted heavily by outliers
standard deviation
a measure of how spread out values are from the mean; affected by outliers
mutually exclusive
two events that cannot occur together
independent
the probability of either event is not affected by the occurrence of the other
probability of independent events
P(A and B) =
P(A or B) =
P(A and B) = PA x PB
P(A or B) = PA + PB - P(A and B)
null hypothesis
a hypothesis of no difference - no significance
confidence interval
a range of values believed to contain the true value with a given level of probability (confidence)
Box plots
contain information about measures of central tendency and distribution; may be comparative or single
intensity of sound
I = P/A = W/m^2
Sound Level
10log(I/Io) = dB
increase of 10 dB is an increase in intensity by a factor of 10. an increase of 20 dB is an increase in intensity by a factor 100
doppler effect
when a source and a detector move relative to one another, the perceived frequency of the sound received differs from the actual frequency emitted even though the source velocity and frequency is unchanged
f’ = f (v +/- vo)/(v+/-vs)
observer and detector moving closer:
- (+) sign in numerator
- (-) sign in the denominator
observer and detector moving apart:
- (-) sign in the numerator
- (+) sign in denominator
refraction equation
n=c/v
n = v(in vacuum)/v(in material)
Snell’s Law
n1sinθ1 =n2sinθ2
when n2>n1, light bends towards the normal
when n2
optics equation
1/o + 1/i = 1/f = 1/r
any units may be used but must be consistent
works for thin spherical lenses
concave mirror
object placed inside the focal length
the image formed behind the mirror, enlarged and virtual
convex mirrors
regardless of the position of the object, a convex mirror forms only a
virtual upright image
converging lens
object inside focal length
image formed is virtual, upright, and englarged
converging lens
object outside of focal length
image formed is real and inverted
converging lens
object at focal length
non image is formed
magnification equation
m = -i/o
- inverted image has a negative m; erect image has a positive m
magnification
|m| < 1 =
|m| > 1 =
|m| = 1 =
|m| < 1 = image reduced
|m| > 1 = image enlarged
|m| = 1 = image same size
photoelectric effect
atoms emitting light E = hf = hc/λ K = hf - W - K is the maximum KE to eject an e- - W (work function) is the minimum energy required to eject an e-
Nuclear binding energy
mass defect =
(sum of the masses of nucleons in the nucleus) - (mass of nucleus) = mass defect
mass defect results from the conversion of matter to energy (E = mc^2) - the binding energy that holds the nucleons within the nucleus
image produced by a diverging lens will always be
upright, virtual, and smaller
visible spectrum
400nm (violet) - 700nm (red)
UV
<400nm
infrared
> 700nm
trace decay theory
memories inevitably decay over time. memories are stored in particular pathways in the brain and that activation of those pathways (by recalling information actively) strengthens those pathways, but disuse of those pathways for a prolonged period of time causes the pathway to decay
angular frequency (ω) of the oscillations
ω = 2πf = 2π/T
dispersion
chromatic aberrations occur due to each wavelength of light having a different focal point as it passes through a lens
- using a compound lens made of a convex lens and a concave lens with two different refractive indexes ensures that chromatic aberration is corrected for all colours - converge at focal point of the lens
diffraction
bending of light as it passes through a small opening
image formed by a concave lens
virtual, upright, diminished, on the same side of the lens as the object
for a curved mirror (concave or convex) - the relationship between the centre of curvature and the focal length =
C= 2f
focal length, f
the distance between the centre of the lens and the focal point
when an object is placed 2x the focal length from a convex lens, the image formed by the lens will be
real, inverted, and the same size as the object
human eye lens image
real, inverted diminished
lens power relationship with the focal length
inversely proportional
the shorter the focal length and greater the power, the greater the amount of refraction
eukaryotic organisms contain __ and __ ribosomal subunits
contains 40S and 60S ribosomal subunits
cell cycle
S (interphase) -> G2 -> M (mitosis) -> cytokinesis -> Go (cell cycle arrest) OR G1 -> back to S
cell cycle
S phase
S phase = interphase, two identical sister chromatids are produced - cells duplicated
cell cycle
G2
the cell double checks the duplicated chromosomes for error, making any needed repairs through homologous recombination
cell cycle
M (mitosis)
the splitting of genetic material
cell cycle
G1
before S phase and after cytokinesis
- cellular contents, excluding the chromosomes are duplicated
pKa of E (glutamic acid) and D (aspartic acid)
~4
pKa of R (arginine)
12
pKa of K (lysine)
10.5
pKa of H (histidine)
6
pKa of N terminal and C terminal
N terminal = 9
C terminal = 2
As pH increases, the functional groups will become ____ starting from ___ pKa to ___ pKa
deprotonated; lower; higher
