Exam 2 Flashcards
what are the research designs that use an intervention? (3)
- experimental
- randomized controlled trials
- quasi-experimental design studies
what’s an example of a study that does not have an intervention but compares two groups of people?
observational study
these are variables that can influence the outcome that weaken the link between the independent and dependent variable
confounding variables
methods to control confounding variables from influencing outcomes of studies:
- Randomization
- crossover
- homogeneity
- matching
- statistical control
“really controlling how mary studies”
what’s the main way to get rid of bias?
“blinding”
the more groups blinded in a study, the less _____ present in a study.
BIAS
re: data collection, what is cross sectional design
one specific time
re: data collection, what is longitudinal design
across extended period of time or multiple times
study looking backwards
retrospective study
is a retrospective study considered a primary or secondary study?
secondary
data has already been collected by someone other than researcher
what is a study that’s looking forward called?
prospective cohort study
between cause and effect, which is the independent variable and which is the outcome? relate cause and effect to PICO terms
cause: independent variable (things that’s changed) / pico: I
effect: outcome / pico: O
3 traits to establish causal relationships
- temporal
- relationship
- confounders
“threesomes rarely count”
re: causal relationships, this trait requires a cause to precede an effect
temporal
re: causal relationships, this trait requires an association to be shown between the cause + effect
relationship
re: causal relationships, this trait requires it to be proven that the effect cannot be caused by a 3rd variable
confounders / confounding variable
a randomized controlled trial (RCT) always has what components? (3)
- intervention
- control
- participants chosen randomly
re: RCTs, which design measures the outcome indicator before?
pre test (baseline data)
re: RCTs, which design measures the outcome indicator after the intervention?
post test data
how is randomization usually achieved?
computer programs
what is this design: giving more than one treatment, but separate them out and use randomization to determine ordering
crossover design
re: blinding, if education was provided in a ________ format, the researcher could be blinded to who the participants are
asynchronous
re: experimental designs, what are the options for C in the PICO question? which is the most ethical?
current practice/ usual care alternative treatment placebo attention control delayed treatment (MOST ETHICAL)
re: experimental designs, this is testing out two treatments for one outcome to see which one gets better results; is this ethical?
alternative treatment
YES it’s ethical since both treatments should benefit the patient
re: experimental designs, this is when a treatment expected to have no effect to compare with the intervention
placebo
re: experimental designs, this is when the control group gets attention but not the intervention
attention control condition
re: experimental designs, this is giving both groups the intervention, but control group waits until later to get it
delayed treatment
what are the limitations to RCTs?
- inability to test all interventions
- inability to randomize certain variables
- difficult to get admin approval to carry out a study
this study examines an intervention, but doesn’t include randomization. a control group is not included etiher.
quasi-experimental study
in this study, the intervention is offered to everyone in a population
quasi-experimental
quasi-experimental studies may call the control group what?
the comparison group
what is one method to increase the reliability of results in a quasi-experimental study?
use a time-series design
this design collects data over an extended period, introducing an intervention and collecting data for a length of time
time-series design
ex: recording data every quarter for a year, introducing an intervention, then recording data every quarter for the next year
what are the disadvantages of quasi-experimental studies?
- less generalizability (increased bias)
2. increased chance for confounding variables to influence results
this study is one in which an intervention is not introduced. what’s an example?
non-experimental
ex: observational
this type of research shows an association between 2 variables; does NOT show cause + effect
correlational research
this type of design begins with presumed cause and looks for presumed effect
cohort design/prospective study
ex: gathering a group of adults who smoke, a group who doesn’t smoke, and comparing the incidence of lung cancer in both groups (ONLY ethical with non-experimental, not RCTs b/c unethical to randomly assign people to start smoking…lol)
this study involves starting with effect or outcome + looking retrospectively at patient data to observe for causative variables
case-control
this study observes the prevalence of something without determining a relationship or linking a cause
descriptive
can non-experimental studies be used to support a practice change?
no
they can lead to educated recommendations, but not specific interventions
3 ways to reduce bias
- blinding
- randomization
- using a script
a method of restricting a study to individuals who have the same confounding variables
homogeneity
ex: if age was a confounding variable then participants could be restricted to a certain age range
developing a comparison group with the same confounding variables as the control group
matching
difficult with >2 variables
what are the 4 components of study validity?
- statistical validity
- internal validity
- external validity
- construct validity
“ICES are valid”
statistical power relates to what?
sample size
the larger the sample size - the more powerful
the extent it can be inferred that the independent variable causes the outcome
internal validity
which types of studies are more likely to face threats to internal validity?
quasi-experimental + correlational studies
the ability to apply the study findings to the general population (r/t validity)
external validity
what’s the method to increase external validity?
multisite studies
what is the biggest weakness to construct validity?
lack of blinding
participants may be aware of intervention + can influence the outcome
Which of the following is not a factor in establishing a causal relationship? A) Confounders B) Relationship C) Temporal D) Sample
D
this involves statistical power
Which of the following is true of a randomized controlled trial? A) Also known as observational study B) Uses a control group C) Researchers select the participants D) Retrospective
B
RCT: intervention, control group, randomize participants, always primary studies
What is a method or intervention that quasi-experimental studies can use to increase the quality of the results if it does not use a comparison group? A) Time-series Design B) Increase sample size C) Randomization D) Identify confounding variables
A (collects data before and after intervention)
quasi-experimental do not use randomization
Which of the following are methods to control a study? (Select all that apply). A) Heterogeneity B) Matching C) Randomization D) Script
B, C, D
HOMOgeneity is used to control a study
What type of study collects data at multiple points or over an extended period of time? A) Observational B) Quasi-experimental C) Randomized Controlled Trial D) Longitudinal
D
this component of quantitative studies specifies how participants will be selected and how many to include
sampling plan
usually in method section
the # of people that participate or respond in a study compared to the # of people sampled
response rate
lower the response rate the weaker the results of the study + the greater chance for bias
specifies the population characteristics allowed in a sample
eligibility criteria
when a certain population type is overrepresented or underrepresented in a sample
sampling bias
mutually exclusive segments of a population based on a specific characteristic
strata
ex: A population could be nursing students. A strata could be nursing students in an accelerated BSN program. Other strata could be students in a traditional BSN program
what are the 4 types of nonprobability sampling?
- Consecutive sampling
- Purposive sampling
- Convenience sampling
- Quota sampling
nonProbability = PCCQ
re: sampling, this selects elements by nonrandom methods in which every element does not have a chance to be included
nonprobability sampling
re: sampling, this selects the most conveniently available people as participants
convenience sampling
ex: walters conducting a survey on this class
re: sampling, this uses strata information to figure out how to use a balanced sample
quota sampling
ex: identifying the percentage of males and females in the population and using the same percentages in the chosen sample
re: sampling, this method recruits everyone from an accessible population over a period of time
consecutive sampling
re: sampling, this method has researchers handpick sample members based on traits in the population
purposive sampling
what samples are the most expedient and have the easiest time being utilized to make a study?
nonprobability samples
what are the 3 types of probability sampling?
- Simple random sampling
- Stratified random sampling
- Systematic Sampling
this type of sampling involves random selection of elements from a population; each element has an equal chance of being selected
probability sampling
what is the most basic probability sampling and involves using a tool to randomly select elements from a sampling frame?
simple random sampling
ex: walters using class roster and assigning a number for every student. then using a program to randomly select 5 numbers to be used for a survey
what is the term for the list of population elements?
sampling frame
this type of sampling divides the population into two strata and then randomly selects samples from both strata
stratified random sampling
this type of sampling chooses to select a specific number such as every 4th person to use in the sample
systematic sampling
which type of sampling method is the only viable method of obtaining a representative sample
probability sampling
“it’s PROBabaly an S - simple random, systematic, stratified
what determines statistical power?
sample size
a large sample does not ensure accurate results if nonprobability sampling is used; a small sample will not support a conclusion even if the sampling is perfectly random
the # of study participants
sample size
the method for researchers to determine how large a sample size should be
power analysis
participants responses to a researcher’s questions (2)
- self report data
2. patient-reported outcomes
how is self report data collected?
interview or questionnaire
when self-reported interview data is collected with a formal written document verbally in person or by telephone
interview
when participants complete a form or survey themselves
questionnaire
these data collection methods are less costly, anonymous + advantageous for geographically dispersed samples
questionnaires
re: data collection, these types of questions allow for specific responses and allow the results to be comparable
close-ended questions
ex: yes or no answers or using a likert scale from 0 to 10
re: data collection, these question types allow for varied responses + richer detail, but more difficult to compare the responses from different participants
open-ended questions
re: data collection, these are devices that assign a numeric score to people along a continuum
scales
ex: likert scale
re: data collection, what type of scale includes ratings like “strongly agree, agree, neutral, disagree, strongly disagree, or always, sometimes, never, n/a”
likert scale
re: data collection, this type of scale measures subjective experiences such as pain or fatigue
visual analog scale
ex: line drawn from left to right may have the left side marked 0 for no pain and the right side marked 10 for most pain – participant can pick a spot along the continuum to represent their pain
re: data collection, these methods gather information about participants through observation.
observational methods
re: data collection, this system focuses on behaviors or events of interest to an observational study
category system
the instrument researchers use to record observations
the checklist
re: data collection, this describes when the observation period will occur
observational sampling
re: data collection, this type of sampling focuses on specific events
event sampling
re: data collection, this can observe the effect of an intervention on a patient through a physiologic response
biophysiologic measures
re: data collection, these are performed directly on the participant to obtain a value (ex: blood pressure)
in vivo measurements
re: data collection, this takes something from the participant and analyzes it (ex: blood draw to measure lab values)
in vitro measurements
re: data analysis, this involves assigning numbers to represent the amount of an attribute present in a person or object
measurement
re: data analysis, this involves an evaluation of the measure’s measurement properties
(ex: in vitro and in vivo)
psychometric assessment
what 2 things are used to measure the effectiveness of a tool
reliability + validity
the extent to which scores are free from measurement error
reliability
re: data analysis, this provides the same measurement tool to the same person at two different points in time
test-retest reliability
test is reliable if scores are same or very similar
the degree to which an instrument measuring a concept is appropriate to measure
validity
re: validity, if an instrument looks like it measures the target construct
face validity
re: validity, the extent an instrument’s content adequately captures the construct
content validity
re: validity, the extent to which scores are a good reflection of an ideal measure of the construct
criterion validity
A researcher is investigating a population of nurses. Nurses are divided up into cardiac nurses and oncology nurses. What would cardiac nurses or oncology nurses represent? A) Strata B) Eligibility criteria C) Sampling bias D) Representative sample
A
A researcher collects data on patients in a labor and delivery unit over a two-month time frame. What type of sampling method is this? A) Quota sampling B) Purposive sampling C) Convenience sampling D) Consecutive sampling
D
Which of the following is a type of probability sampling? A) Convenience Sampling B) Consecutive Sampling C) Systematic Sampling D) Quota Sampling
C
What is an example of when a large sample size might not be an accurate representation of the population? A) a power analysis determines the size B) nonprobability sampling is used C) qualitative studies D) observational studies
B
Benefits of Questionnaires include which of the following? (Select all that apply). A) anonymity B) reach diverse geographical areas C) free from validity errors D) less costly than interviews
A
B
D
what are the general characteristics of qualitative research designs?
- emergent design: evolves as the study goes on
- flexibility
- triangulation of data
- holistic
- ongoing data analysis
are qualitative studies experimental or nonexperimental?
nonexperimental
UNLESS part of larger quantitative study
what is the one similarity between quantitative and qualitative research?
time frames
both can be cross-sectional or longitudinal
these studies are able to reveal potential patterns or causal relationships
qualitative
description and interpretation of a culture and cultural behavior
ethnography
any group with a similar trait, ex: nursing students
process by which the ethnographer comes to understand a culture
fieldwork
re: ethnography, this perspective refers to the way a culture regards their world
emic
insider’s view
re: ethnography, this perspective is the outsider’s perspective of the cultures experience
etic
what are the 3 types of info ethnographers seek out?
- cultural behavior
- cultural artifacts
- cultural speech
“they BASk in the culture”
researcher making observations while participating in activities
participant observation
the study and analysis of the local or indigenous people’s viewpoints, beliefs, and practices about nursing care behavior and processes of designated cultures
ethnonursing research
seeks to understand people’s everyday life experiences
Phenomenology
these types of studies have a smaller sample size and involve in-depth conversations with individuals
Phenomenology
