Exam 2 Flashcards
Behaviorism
a theory of learning that that focuses on observations of behavior
classical conditioning
organisms learn association between 2 stimuli, as a result the organism anticipates an event
Operant conditioning
learn association through behavior and consequence
-learn to increase behaviors associated with reward
Observational learning
when a behavior is observed, then imitated
unconditioned stimulus (US)
is a stimulus that produces a response without prior learning; food was the US in Pavlov’s experiments.
unconditioned response (UR)
is an unlearned reaction that is automatically elicited by the US.
conditioned stimulus (CS)
is a previously neutral stimulus that eventually elicits a conditioned response after being paired with the unconditioned stimulus.
conditioned response (CR)
is the learned response to the conditioned stimulus that occurs after CS–US pairing
Acquisition
is the initial learning of the connection between the US and CS when these two stimuli are paired
- bell and food - sugar water and peppermint smell - during acquisition the CS is repeatedly present after the US, eventually the CS will produce the responce
Generalization
in classical conditioning is the tendency of a new stimulus that is similar to the original conditioned stimulus to elicit a response that is similar to the conditioned response
Discrimination
in classical conditioning is the process of learning to respond to certain stimuli and not others
Extinction
in classical conditioning is the weakening of the conditioned response when the unconditioned stimulus is absent
TASTE AVERSION LEARNING
-sushi and jazz example
Shaping
Rewarding successive approximations of a desired behavior
Rewards for every step closer to the goal even when not achieved
Positive Reinforcement
frequency of a behavior increases because it is followed by
something that increases the likelihood the behavior will be repeated
Negative Reinforcement
Nagging example (dad’s nagging is unpleasant reinforcement)
Even though the enforcement is negative, it still increases the likelihood of a behaviorPrimary Reinforcer
is innately satisfying; does not require any learning on the organisms part to make it pleasurable
Ex. Food, Water, Sexual Satisfaction
Secondary Reinforcer
Acquires positive value through experience. A learned or conditioned behavior.
Schedules of Reinforcement
Specific patterns that determine when a behavior is reinforced Fixed Ratio Variable Ratio Fixed Interval Variable Interval
Ratio Schedules
involve the number of behaviors that must be performed prior to reward
Interval Schedules
involve the amount of time that must pass before behavior is rewarded
Punishment
A consequence that decreases the likelihood of a behavior
Ex. Playing with matches and getting burned
Positive Punishment
a behavior decreases when it is followed by a stimulus
Ex. Getting scolded or forced to run laps
Negative Punishment
a behavior decreases when stimulus is removed
Ex. Isolation
Encoding
The process by which information gets into memory storage
Elaboration
Elaboration: The formation of a number of different connections around a stimulus at any given level of memory
Ex. Like creating a spider web of links between information
Atkins-shiffrin theory
memory storage involves 3 systems
- Sensory memory- fraction of a second to several seconds
- short term memory- up to 30 seconds
- long term memory- up to a life time
Average capacity of short term memory
7 plus or minus 2
Chunking
Chunking involves grouping or “packing” information that exceeds the 7 ± 2 memory span into higher-order units that can be remembered as single units.
Implicit memory
(non-declarative) remembers non conscious skills and sensory perceptions. “how”
Explicit memory-
(declarative) Recollection of information specific to facts and events. (who, what, when, where, and why) can be verbally communicated
Episodic memory
the retention of information about “when, where, and what” of life events ex, where you were when your sibling was born
Semantic memory
is a person’s knowledge about the world. It includes one’s areas of expertise, general knowledge of the sort learned in school, and everyday knowledge about the meanings of words, famous individuals, important places, and common things. For example, semantic memory is involved in a person’s knowledge of chess, of geometry, and of who the Dalai Lama, LeBron James, and Lady Gaga are.
Recognition
is a memory task in which the individual only has to identify (recognize) learned items, as on multiple-choice tests. Recall tests such as essay tests have poor retrieval cues.
Recall
is a memory task in which the individual has to retrieve previously learned information
Retrograde amnesia
memory loss that affects the past
Anterograde amnesia
memory disorder that affects the retention of new information and events
Intelligence
as an all-purpose ability to do well on cognitive tasks, to solve problems, and to learn from experience.
Reliability
the extent to which a test yields a consistent reproducible measure of performance
Validity
the extent to which a test measures what it is intended to measure
Standardization
developing uniform procedures for administering and scoring a test
Stanford binet intelligence quotient
mental age/actual age X 100
Normal distribution
a symmetrical bell-shaped curve with the majority of scores falling in the middle and extremes towards the outer edges
Gifted cut off score
130 and above
Disabled cut off score
70 and below
Gartners theory of intelligence- “9 frames of mind”
Verbal Mathematical Spacial Bodily-kinesthetic Musical Interpersonal Intrapersonal Naturalist Existentialism
Sternberg’s triarchic theory of intelligence
- anylitical intelligence- ability to analyze, judge, evaluate, compare and contrast
- creative intelligence ability to create, design, innovate, originate, and imagine
- practical intelligence ability to use, apply, implement, and put ideas to practice
Nature
a persons biological inheritance, especially their genes
Nurture
a person environmental and social experiences
Development from fetus to zygot in 3 periods
- germinal
- embryonic
- fetal
Germinal period
1-2 weeks
- after one week the zygote is made of 100-150 cells.
- by week 2 the mass of cells as attached to the side of the uterine wall
Embryonic period
3-8 weeks
- organs develop
- spinal chord is formed
- heart beat
- arms and legs become differentiated
- face
Fetal period
2-9 months At 2 months size of kidney bean Month 4 fetus is 5 inches long Month 6 fetus is 1.5 lbs Organ function increases till birth
Teratogen
any agent that causes birth defects
- smoking
- substance abuse
- -drinking
Preferential looking
involves giving the infant a choice of what object to look at
- prefer to look at faces
- attractive over unattractive
- mothers of strangers
Puberty
a period of rapid skeletal and sexual maturation
-changes for girls happen 2 years earlier than boys
Amygdala
involved in emotion/instinctual reactions
Pre-frontal cortex
cognitive decision making/problem solving and judgment
- limbic system matures much earlier then the prefrontal cortex
- could explain strong emotional responses and reward seeking in adolescents
- lack of control over emotions
- increased risk taking
Assimilation
individuals incorporate new information into existing schemas
- faced with new experiences the person applies old ways of doing things
- toddlers sucking on all new things
- toddlers calling all animals doggies
Accommodation
individuals change their schema in response to new experiences
-toddler learning not all animals are doggies
4 stages of cognitive developments
- sensorimotor stage
- preoperational stage
- Concrete operational stage
- formal operational stag
Sensorimotor stage
birth - 2 yrs
-infants construct an understanding of the world by coordinating sensory experiences with motor actions
Pre-operational stage
age 2-7
- Children begin to represent their world with words, images, drawings and thoughts
- begin to exceed simple connections of sensorimotor information and physical action
Concrete operational stage
7-11
- involves using operations and replacing intuitive reasoning with logical reasoning in concrete situations
- can imagine a reverse operation (beaker example)
Formal operational stage
11-15 continues through adulthood
- thought is more abstract and logical than concrete stage
- includes thinking about things that are not concrete, making predictions and using logic to come up with a hypothesis of the future
Conservation
a belief in the permanence of certain attributes of objects, despite superficial changes
Adolescent egocentrism
the belief that all others are as preoccupied with the adolescent as he or she is, that one is unique and that one is invincible Ex boy at the mall thinking everyone is looking at his hair
Eriksons 8 stages of socioemotional development
- Trust vs Mistrust
- Autonomy vs Shame and doubt
- Initiative vs Guilt
- Industry vs Inferiority
- Identity vs identity confusion
- intimacy vs isolation
- generativity vs stagnation
- integrity vs despair
Trust vs mistrust
birth - 1.5 yrs
-sense of trust requires a feeling of physical comfort. Infants basic needs are met my responsive, sensitive caregivers
Autonomy vs shame and doubt
1.5-3 yrs
Assert sense of independence, realize they have will
Initiative vs guilt
3-5
Develop more purposeful behavior feel irresponsible and guilty if they do not take on more responsibility
Industry vs inferiority
6-puberty
Children enter school and gain competency in academic skill
Find that it is time to get to work and learn/achive
Identity vs confusion
10-20yrs
Faced with finding out who they are and what they are all about. Exploration if alternative solutions to roles
Intimacy vs isolation
20-30yrs
Faced with the task for forming intimate relationships with others
Generativity vs stagnation
Generativity vs stagnation 40-50yrs
Chief concern is to assist the younger generation
Integrity vs despair
60-on
Look back and evaluate what they have done with their lives
Authoritarian parenting
strict, punitive style
Firmly limit and control the child with little verbal exchange
-children sometimes lack social skills, show poor initiative and compare themselves to others
Authoritative parenting
encourage child to be independent but still places limits and controls on behavior
5 features of emerging adulthood
Identity exploration, Instability, Self focus, feeling “in-between”, The age of possibilities
Motivation
the force that moves people to behave, think, and feel the way they do
-behavior is directed, energized, and sustained
Need
a physical or biological deprivation that energises the drive to eliminate or reduce the deprivation (physiological state)
Drive
is an aroused state that occurs because of a psychological need (psychological state)
Drive reduction theory
as a drive becomes stronger we are motivated to reduce it.
-goal of drive reduction is homeostasis
Homeostasis
the body’s tendency to maintain equilibrium
Optimum arousal theory
the yerks-dodson law
Performance is best under moderate arousal
Insulin
complex carbs rise and fall gradually, candy rise and fall sharply. You are more likely to eat again after eating simple sugars than complex sugars
Leptin
released by fat cells, decreases food intake and increases metabolism
Lateral hypothalamus
lateral (outer parts)involved in stimulating eating (when stimulated, uncontrollable eating occurs)
Ventromedial hypothalamus
(inner location) involved in reducing hunger and restricting eating (when stimulated animal does not eat, even when starved)
Estrogens-
predominant in females, produced in ovaries
Androgens-
such as testosterone, predominant in males, produced in testes and adrenal glands in men and women
Refractory period
period in which males cannot have another orgasm
Intrinsic motivation
based on internal factors such as organismic needs (competency, relatedness, autonomy)
Extrinsic motivation
external incentives such as reward or punishment
James-lang theory
emotion results from physiological states, triggered by stimuli in an environment
Cannon-bard theory
proposes that emotion and physiological reactions occur simultaneously
