Exam 2 Flashcards
Functions of the Bone
support, protection, allow movement/lever system, storage depot for Ca and P salts, hematopoiesis
Hematopoiesis
formation of blood cells involved multipotent stem cells
Classes of Bones
long bones, short bones, flat bones, irregular bones, sesamoid bones
Long Bones
longer than they are wide
Short Bones
Same size in width and length
Irregular bones
bones that we cannot describe the shape of
Sesamoid Bones
form entirely of a tendon
Structures of a long bone
Diaphysis, metaphysis, epiphysis, marrow cavity
Diaphysis
shaft of the bone
Metaphysis
neck of bone (bone ends to widen)
Epiphysis
ends of the bones and contain spongy bones which has empty spaces that are red bone marrow
Red bone marrow
active type of bone marrow and where hematopoiesis occurs
Yellow bone marrow
inactive type of bone marrow which is mostly fat and fill the narrow part of long bones called the medullary cavity
Compact bone
hard parts of bone and made up of osteons with concentric layers of lamellae and found in diaphysis or either side of flat bones
Spongy bone
lattice work of bone and does not contain osteons or blood vessels and has more space (medullary cavity)
Periosteum
the wrapping of our bone and is made up of dense irregular connective tissue and considered active part of bone (osteoblasts and osteoclasts are here)
Perforating fibers
help attach periosteum to compact bone (collagen fibers do by providing strength in many directions)
Fibers of tendons
dense regular connective tissue that connect muscle to bone
Endosteum
Lines the medullary cavity and contains many osteoprogenitor cells, osteoclasts and osteoblasts (more active than periosteum)
Epiphyseal plate
metaphysis and is made of the hyaline cartilage (in kids)
Epiphyseal line
metaphysis in an adult so hyaline cartilage disappears
Articular cartilage
is made of hyaline cartilage and coats the ends of the long bones that articulate with other bones (very smooth and reduces friction), lot of collagen so strong
Bone is a dynamic tissue
so very vascularized (in communication with other systems in the body)
Volkmann’s canals
bring blood into the central canal then the osteons to the osteocytes for nutrients
Ossification
bone formation (occurs in fetal skeleton)
Types of bone formation
Intramembranous and endochondral
Mesenchyme
fetal connective tissues that has a lot of blood vessels coming through
Intramembranous ossification
Osteoblasts starts to secret bone matrix and start to calcify and harden as calcium salts are added and trap some osteoblasts and continues to secretes the osteoid
Fontanelles
large areas of dense connective tissues in fetal skull and provide flexibility during birth and growth (gone by age 2 by sutures)
Endochondral ossification in fetal
Starts with bone already patterned by hyaline cartilage and osseous tissue begins to replace the hyaline cartilage. Chondrocytes begin to enlarge and die without nutrients. Chondroblasts will become osteoblasts. The spaces then begin to build blood vessels and become primary ossification center. Then secondary ossification center is created then the osteoblasts are trapped and mature into osteocytes. Much of the hyaline cartilage is replace by bone and spongy bone is created
Primary ossification center
secreted bony matrix where most of the osteoblasts are
Secondary ossification center
more blood vessels invade bringing osteoprogenitor cells that become osteoblasts and lay down more bone matrix
Appositional growth
can occur in children and adults, increase in width, compact bone thickens and strengthens long bone with layers of circumferential lamellae
Bone remodeling
occurs in response to demand on bones
ex: weight training (stronger) or prolonged bed rest (weaker)
Wolffe’s Law
bones remodel in response to compressive force
PTH
stimulates osteoclasts so calcium in body increases
Calcitonin
inhibits osteoclasts and stimulates osteoblasts so calcium in body decreases
Osteoporosis
most common in aging and post menopause females (lack of estrogen), less bone density, results in compression fractures in vertebrae
Steps in bone repair
hematoma, soft callus, bony callus, remodeling
fibrocartilage callus
occurs during internal part of break after hematoma by active cells in endosteum
Hematoma
blood clot in bone
Closed fracture
not penetrated the skin
Open fracture
has broken through the skin and may cause an infection
Greenstick fracture
common in children, happen when fracture only goes halfway through bone
Articulation
meeting place of 2 or more bones
ex: shoulder joint connects humerus to scapula
Range of motion
refers to the normal extent of mobility for a specific joint movement (in degrees)
Degrees of freedom
the number of axes at which movement in a joint occurs
Relationship between mobility and stability
inverse
Synarthrosis
immovable
Amphiarthrosis
slightly movable
Diarthrosis
freely movable
Classification of joints by structure
fibrous, cartilaginous, synovial
Flexion
typically bends the joint, decreasing the angle between bones
Extension
typically straightens the joint, increasing angle between bones
Dorsiflexion
bring the foot towards the body
Plantarflexion
bring the foot away from the body
Abduction
movement away from the midline
Adduction
movement toward the midline
Circumduction
combines forward and backward movement with medial and lateral movement in a cone-like shape
Rotation
movement around a longitudinal axis of a moving segment
Pronation
radius rotates over ulna
Supination
radius and ulna are parallel
Inversion
take sole of foot and rotate it to point inward
Eversion
take sole of foot and rotate it to point outward
Elevation
moves upward
Depression
moves downward
Protraction
push forward
Retraction
pull backward
Opposition
movement where any two fingers (one of them is mainly the thumb) come together “pinching”
Types of fibrous joints
suture, syndesmosis, gomphosis
Types of cartilaginous joints
synchondrosis, symphysis
Types of synovial joints
uniaxial, biaxial, triaxial, non axial
Sutures
connects bones of the skull, bond together by extremely short and tight fibers, synarthrosis
Syndesmosis
longer fibers than suture but still short, bones connected by interosseous ligament (allows for slight shift or give movement)
Synchondrosis
hyaline cartilage connects bones or part of bones, immovable,
Symphysis
fibrocartilage disc unites bone, allows for slight movement
ex: pubic symphysis, joints connecting vertebral bodies
Synovial
characterized by a joint cavity containing synovial fluid, freely movable joints, most commonly seen in appendicular skeleton, all share common anatomy
Synovial membrane
loose connective tissue that is vascularized and secretes synovial fluid
Joint capsule
dense irregular connective tissue that is continuous to the periosteum
purpose of synovial fluid
cushion, lubricate, nourish
Bursa
pillows of synovial fluid
Tendon sheath
sleeve filled with synovial fluid
Uniaxial joints
1 axis of rotation
Types of uniaxial joints
hinge joints, pivot joints
Hinge joints
concave surface articulating with a convex surface
ex: elbow
Pivot joints
cylinder shape rotates within ring of bone or ligament
ex: axis and atlas of vertebra
Biaxial
2 pairs of rotation
Condyloid joints
ovoid-shaped process articulate with a shallow cavity
ex: wrist
Saddle joints
distinctly shaped articulating surfaces
ex: first metacarpals
Types of biaxial joints
condyloid joints, saddle joints
Triaxial joints
3 axes of rotation
Types of triaxial joints
ball and socket joints
Ball and socket joints
spherical surface articulating with a cup-shaped socket
Nonaxial joints
no identifiable axis of rotation, slight gliding movements
Types of nonaxial joints
gliding joints
Gliding joints
flat or nearly flat articular surfaces that allow gliding in any direction
Amphipathic
having the characteristic of being nonpolar and polar
Peripheral proteins
attach to either inner or outer face of membrane
Integral proteins
protrude partly or all the way across membrane, include channel proteins and carrier proteins
Plasma membrane functions
physical barrier, exchange, communication, attachment
Paracellular
between cells
Transcellular
through cells
Passive Transport
does not require energy from the cell, materials move from higher concentration to lower concentration
Active Transport
requires energy, molecules are moved from lower concentration to higher concentration
Types of passive transport
simple diffusion, osmosis, facilitated diffusion, bulk filration
Brownian motion
random movements of molecules in all directions, non-linear
Properties of simple diffusion
passive process, net movement of high to low concentration, requires a concentration gradient, rapid over short distances, directly related to temperature, inversely related to molecular size, in open system or across a partition
Concentration gradient
the absolute difference in solute concentration between two places
Osmosis
the diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane, the concentration of water is lowered by the addition of solutes
Osmolarity
the number of particles in solution
Hypertonic solution
increase in volume of solute outside the cell so water moves out of cell (cell shrinks)
Hypotonic solution
higher volume of solute inside the cell so water moves into the cell (cell swells)
Isotonic solution
no change in cell volume
Osmotic force
pressure created by diffusion of water
Hydrostatic force
force that is created by fluid kept under pressure
Facilitated diffusion
solute requires the help of an integral protein to pass through the plasma membrane
ex: glucose
Bulk filtration
not due to random motion of individual molecules, solute follows the pressure gradient
Types of ion gating mechanisms
voltage-gated, ligand-gated, mechanosensitive
Channelopathies
diseases and disorders that are result of ion channel dysfunction
Occlusion state
a state that the solute is not accessible either inside or outside
Primary active transport
directly consumes ATP
Secondary active transport
utilizes energy stored in a pre-existing concentration gradient
Axial skeleton
head, vertebral column includes ribs and sternum
Temporal Mandibular joint (TMJ)
demonstrated by yawning, complex
Bones involved in TMJ
temporal (mandibular fossa) and mandible (mandibular condyles), combined hinge and gliding joint, includes a cushioning disk (made of fibrocartilage)
Muscles involved in TMJ
Digastric (opens jaws), Temporalis and Masseter (closes jaw), Pterygoids (lateral excursion, protrusion, depression/elevation of mandible)
Function of vertebral column
support weight of head and trunk, protect spinal cord
How many bones are in the vertebral column?
26 bones
Sections of the vertebral column and the number of bones in each
7 cervical, 12 thoracic, 5 lumbar, sacrum (5 fused), coccyx (4 fused)
movements of the vertebral column
flexion/extension, lateral flexion, circumduction, rotation
What is the intervertebral disk made out of?
outer annulus fibrosus, inner nucleus pulposis
Herniated (slipped) disc
tear in annulus fibrosus allows protrusion of nucleus pulposis, pressed on the spinal nerve which causes pain
Atlanto-axial joint
first cervical vertebra (C1) is called atlas and has no body, second cervical vertebra (C2) is called axis and contains dens, produce the “no-no” movement (pivot joint)
Atlanto-occipital joint
atlas superior facets articulate with occipital condyles, makes a double condyloid joint
Functions of atlanto-occipital joint
allows for extended range of motion for flexion/extension of head on the neck, makes the “yes” movement
Muscles of the intervertebral joints
sternocleidomastoid (one side allows us to oblique the skull while both sides do forward flexion), rectus abdominus (flexes vertebral column), erector spinae (extend vertebral column)
What are the bones of the thorax?
sternum, ribs, thoracic vertebra
Functions of the thorax
protection of heart and lungs, role of gliding movements for breathing
Costovertebral joints
head of rib with vertebral body, tubercle of rib with transverse process, all are gliding joints
Postural curves
primary curves, secondary curves
Primary curves
convex posterior, thoracic and sacral
Secondary curves
convex anterior, cervical and lumbar
What is the curve of a newborn?
“C” shaped, no secondary curves, primary curves shaped as thoracic and sacral supposed to be
When do the secondary curves start to appear?
cervical - as baby gains head control and lumbar - when infant learn to sit/stand
The importance of postural curves
curves balance the spine and makes so little muscular energy is required to maintain upright position
What are the abnormal postural curves?
kyphosis, lordosis, scoliosis
Kyphosis
exaggerated thoracic curve, common in elderly women with osteoporosis
Lordosis
exaggerated lumbar curve, common in pregnancy or weight gain in same area
Scoliosis
lateral curvature, C- or S- shaped
Agonist or Prime mover
directly performs the desires movement, first muscle recruited for a particular movement
Antagonist
opposes the movement, performs opposite action
Synergist
recruited to assist for extra strength, or to stabilize joint and allow movement
Function of Pectoral girdle
connects upper extremity to axial skeleton
Bones of pectoral girdle
clavicle, manubrium sternum, scapula
Articulations of pectoral girdle
sternoclavicular (manubrium - clavicle and is gliding joint), acromioclavicular (clavicle -acromion of scapula and is gliding joint)
these two joints allow for elevation and depression of the scapula
Scapular muscles
upper trapezius - elevates scapula
lower trapezius - depresses scapula
middle of trapezius - produce retraction of scapula
Glenohumeral joint
most freely moveable joint, ball and socket joint
Bones of glenohumeral joint
scapula - glenoid fossa and humerus - head
Deltoid - posterior
abduct, extend
Latissimus dorsi
extend, adduct
Supraspinatus
abduction
Infraspinatus
external rotation
Teres minor
external rotation
Triceps brachii
extend
Deltoid - anterior
flex
Pectoralis major
flex, adduct, and internally rotate
Subscapularis
internal rotation
Biceps brachii
flex
Bones of the elbow joint
humerus, ulna, and radius
Movements of the elbow
flexion-extension at humero-ulnar hinge joint
Muscles of the elbow
brachialis - flex
brachioradialis - flex
biceps brachii - flex
triceps brachii - extend
What is the prime mover of elbow joint flexion?
brachialis
What is the syngerist of elbow joint flexion?
biceps
What is the antagonist of elbow joint flexion?
triceps
Why are the biceps not the prime mover for elbow joint flexion?
biceps are a powerful supinator
Pronator teres
pronate
Bones of the wrist
radius, ulna, carpals
Articulation of the wrist joint
radiocarpal - true wrist = condyloid (biaxial) synovial joint
Muscles of the wrist
flexors carpi ulnas and radialis - flexion
extensor carpi ulnas and radialis - extension
adduction - ulnar flexor and ulnar extensor
abduction - radial flexor and radial extensor
combine all four for circumduction
What is the os coxa?
ilium, ischium, pubis
Acetabulum
deep depression that forms the hip articulation with the femur
Articulations of the pelvic girdle
sacroiliac - ilium to sacrum - gliding, pubic symphysis - symphysis, lumbosacral - L5 and sacrum - symphysis and gliding
Muscles of the pelvis girdle
rectus abdominus - flexion
erector spinae - extension
quadratus lumborum - lateral tilts (attaches to ilium)
Bones of the hip joint
head of the femur articulates with deep socket (acetabulum), ball and socket joint
Movements of hip
flexion/extension, adduction/abduction, internal and external rotation
Psoas major
flex
Gluteus medius
abduct, internal rotation
Gluteus maximus
extend, external rotation
Adductors
adduct
Gluteus minimus
abduct, internal rotation
Rectus femoris for hip
one of the quadriceps, flex
Hamstrings for hip
Semimembranosus, Semitendinosus, Biceps femoris (all 3 extend)
Bones of the knee joint
femur - femoral condyles, tibia - tibial condyles, patella
Articulations of the knee joint
Double condyloid joint because the medial condyles of the femur and tibia articulate with each other while the lateral condyles of the femur and tibia articulate with each other
Patellar articulation
Movements of the knee joint
flexion/extension (more than simple hinge and soft tissue needed for stability)
Menisci
fibrocartilage pads that provide cushion between the condyloid of each joint
Cruciate ligament (ACL and PCL)
prevent the tibia from completely rolling off from the femur as it glides through flexion and extension
Collateral ligaments
provides stability in lateral motion so prevent the tibia from rolling side to side
Bursae
synovial pillows that help to reduce friction during motion of synovial joints
Fat pads
provides additional cushion
ACL tears
sprain or tear of the ACL by direct blow to the knee, strong muscle contraction due to sudden change of direction while running but can be repaired surgically
Patellar ligament
attaches to patella from tibia
Functions of the patella
protection and mechanical advantage for knee extension
Hamstrings for knee
all flex
Gastrocnemius
flex
Quadriceps for knee
rectus femoris, vasti lateralis, vasti medialis, vasti intermedius - all extend
Sartorius for hip
flex, abduct, external rotation
Sartorius for knee
flex
