Exam 2 Flashcards
1
Q
What is the relationship between vasculature cross sectional area and blood flow velocity?
A
As cross sectional area increases, the velocity of blood flow decreases
2
Q
Small arteries, veins, and capillaries contain what percentage of total blood volume?
A
75%
3
Q
Blood flow velocity in venues is ______ than in capillaries due to what?
A
higher
a decrease in cross sectional area
4
Q
Describe how the systemic and pulmonary circulations are linked physically.
A
Systemic venous blood is deoxygenated and comes from the body. It returns the heart via the IVC SVC. Once in the RA the deoxygenated blood is pumped to the RV where the blood then goes to to the pulmonary trunk and arteries to the lungs. Here gas exchange occurs and blood picks up oxygen
5
Q
Blood is ejected from the heart when ventricular pressure is ______ than atrial pressure.
A
Greater
6
Q
What side of the body is concerned with oxygenated blood?
A
Left side
7
Q
The resistance of a vessel ______ as the diameter decreases.
A
Increases
8
Q
What are the levels of organization of muscle tissue
A
Epimysium
Perimysium
Endomysium
9
Q
The structure of a muscle fiber that contains the plasma membrane and basement membrane of muscle cell. It conducts electrochemical wave of depolarization over the muscle fiber
A
Sarcolemma
10
Q
List 2 functions of the sarcoplasmic reticulum
A
provides integrity to muscle cell
allows depolarization to spread from outside of cell to the inside
11
Q
The length of a sarcomere determines
A
muscle functional properties
12
Q
What makes up a myofilament
A
actin and myosin
13
Q
Alignment and length of muscle fiber affects _______ capacity?
A
Power and force
14
Q
Describe characteristics of fusiform muscle fibers
A
fibers run parallel to the muscles long axis
Good for rapid muscle shortening, speed
15
Q
Describe the characteristics of pennate muscle fibers
A
Fibers are short and run oblique to muscle long axis
Good for power movements
16
Q
What is a benefit of degree of pennation?
A
It allows for more fibers in a short area
17
Q
Describe the orientation of complex fusiform muscle fibers.
A
Muscle fibers run parallel to muscle lines of pull
Short fibers are packed into long muscle without compromising strength
18
Q
Briefly describe the sequence of muscle action.
A
Action potential is generated and reaches NMJ
ACh is released from vesicles in terminal axis
ACh binds to post synaptic receptors on sarcolemma
T tubules are depolarized causing a release of Ca from the sarcoplasmic reticulum
Calcium binds troponin in the myofibril, pulling on tropomyosin to make the actin binding site available
The myosin head binds to actin binding site which causes activation of myosin ATPase
Myosin ATPase splits the ATP releasing energy causing the cross bridge to move causing muscle shortening
When ATP binds cross bridge, myosin and actin dissociate
19
Q
Describe characteristics of fast twitch muscle fibers
A
High myosin-ATPase activity rapid Ca release and uptake predominant in anaerobic activities Rely on glycolytic system for energy transfer Rapid energy generation
20
Q
In which type of activity would you expect to see predominantly fast twitch fibers?
A
Anaerobic activity requiring quick powerful actions
21
Q
Which type of muscle fiber, fast or slow twitch, relies on glycolytic system ?
A
Fast twitch
22
Q
Type 1 muscle fibers is also known as _____ twitch
A
slow
23
Q
Which type of twitch fiber depends on oxidative metabolism?
A
Slow twitch
24
Q
Define fatigue
A
the decline in muscle tension or force capacity with repeated stimulation
25
The force of muscle action varies by which two mechanisms?
an increased number of motor units
| increased frequency of motor unit discharge
26
What are proprioceptors?
Sensors that are sensitive to stretch, tension and pressure and send instant relay to CNS
27
What is IPSP
Inhibitory post synaptic potential.
| Hyperpolarization of a neuron making It difficult to fire again
28
List 3 things that cause trigger points
Poor posture
Injuries from lifting
Strain or tear of muscle
stress
29
What are some treatments for trigger points?
ectrostimulation
Therapeutic Stretching Techniques Physical Therapy
Therapeutic Massage
Pulsed Ultrasound Low-Level Laser Therapy Corticosteroid injections
30
What causes myofascial pain syndrome?
Trigger points or knots that cause a restricted blood flow, pinched nerves, spasms and scar tissues
31
What causes tendonitis?
Micro-fractions in a tendon caused by forces from a muscle
32
What is the relationship between blood flow velocity and cross sectional area of vasculature?
As the cross sectional area increases the flow velocity decreases
33
Where in the CV system is flow velocity the lowest? Why?
In the capillaries , the largest total cross sectional area
34
Why does blood flow velocity increase in venues?
The cross sectional area of venues is smaller than that of the capillaries so the flow slightly increases
35
Describe how the cardio and pulmonary systems are physically linked.
Deoxygenated venous blood returns to the heart via vena cave into the right atrium then goes through the pulmonary arteries to the lungs for gas exchange in alveolar capillaries
36
How does reduced venous return affect cardiac output?
Decreases cardiac output
37
What are the effects of reduced venous return?
Decreased cardiac output
Reduced arterial blood pressure
Accelerated heart rate
38
Diastolic blood pressure indicates ______ resistance.
Peripheral
39
Define peripheral reisstance
The ease that blood flows from arterioles to capillaries
40
Define cardiac output
The amount of blood pumped from the heart per min
41
What happens to the rate of flow during strenuous exercise?
It increases
42
Describe the effects of changes in intrathoracic pressure on venous return, cardiac output, arterial blood pressure and heart rate.
An increase in intrathoracic pressure due to the Valsava maneuver closes the thoracic veins. That causes the amount of blood going back to the heart (venous return) to decrease. With a decrease in venous return there is a decrease in the amount of blood in the ventricles thus a decrease in the amount of blood ejected from the heart (cardiac output) a decrease in CO reduces the amount of blood in circulation so there is less blood that exerts force on the vessels (blood pressure) so BP decreases and HR will decrease
43
Define stroke volume
the amount of blood pumped from each ventricle
44
What is the difference between stroke volume and cardiac output?
SV is the amount of blood pumped from each ventricle, CO is the amount of blood pumped from the heart per min
45
Define blood pressure
The force of circulating blood on the walls of the blood vessels
46
Which branch of the nervous system causes vasodilation?
Parasympathetic
47
How does the sympathetic nervous system affect cardiovascular activity?
Releases NE and EPI which works on muscle tissue causing vasoconstriction in vessels and increase contractility of the myocardium
48
Chemicals that increase myocardial contractility are
Ionotropic
49
Chemicals that accelerate SA node depolarizations are
Chronotropic
50
What effects do byproducts of local metabolism have on blood vessels
Cause vasodilation
51
What is a precapillary sphincter?
Smooth muscle that controls diameter of capillary
52
Define mean arterial presure
The average force exerted by blood against arterial walls during cardiac cycle
53
What are the effects of increased sympathetics on cardiovascular function?
Increased HR
Increased strength of contraction
Vasodilation of Coronary Arteries
54
What are the effects of increased parasympathetics on cardio function?
Decreased HR
Decreased strength of atrial contraction
Vasoconstriction of coronary arteries
Dilation of skin blood vessels
55
What is the function of Beta 1 adrenergic receptor?
Cardiac acceleration --receptor for EPI and NE which increase contractiity
56
What effect does EPI and NE have on myocardium
Increases contractility
57
Intrinsic factors regulating HR
Sympathetic & parasympathetic NS
| Circulating Catecholamines
58
List two Intrinsic factors affecting Stroke Volume
Stretching of myocardium (preload)
| Frank Starling Curve
59
List 4 factors that contribute to the stretching of the myocardium
Total Blood Volume
Pumping action of skeletal muscle
Body position (supine vs upright)
Venous Tone
60
What intrinsic factors affect the contractile state of the myocardium
Sympathetics & parasympathetics
| Circulating catecholamines
61
Describe the relationship between the magnitude of HR acceleration and physical activity.
As the intensity and duration of physical activity increases, the magnitude of HR acceleration increases
62
What are the three factors affecting blood pressure?
Cardiac Output
Peripheral Resistance
Blood Volume
63
Water _______ hormones require a carrier protein in the blood but does not need a transporter protein to enter a cell
Insoluble
64
Water ____ hormones do not require a carrier protein in the blood but need a transporter to enter a cell
Soluble
65
What are the types of neuroendocrine signaling mechanisms?
```
Paracrine
Autocrine
Neurotransmission
Endocrine
Neurosecretory
```
66
Describe the paracrine signaling mechanism
local signaling to a nearby target cell
67
Describe autocrine signaling mechanism
Local signaling to the cell itself
68
Describe endocrine signaling
Long distance signaling of a chemical by way of blood to reach the target cell
69
Describe neurosecretory signaling.
The secretion of chemicals from a neurosecretory cell into the bloodstream to reach a target cell
70
Describe neurotransmission signaling
The secretion of chemicals or signals from a neuron to a synapse. Local signaling
71
List the four factors that influence hormone concentration
The amount of hormone made by host gland
The rate of catabolism or secretion of hormone into the blood
The amount of transport proteins present
Plasma volume changes
72
How does the rate of hormone catabolism affect hormone concentration?
The rate at which a hormone is inactivated by kidneys and liver will determine how much hormone is left in the blood
73
How does exercise affect the hormone concentration
During exercise blood flow to the splanchnic arteries and renal arteries is restricted so the catabolism of hormone is decreased so the plasma concentration of hormone increases
74
How does plasma volume during exercise affect hormone concentration?
During exercise water is lost via sweat so the plasma volume of water decreases leaving a high concentration of hormone behind.
75
What determines the amount of hormone made by a host gland?
The magnitude of chemical stimulants or inhibitory chemicals
76
Define hormonal endocrine gland stimulation.
Hormone secretion that stimulates the release of other hormones
77
Define Humoral endocrine gland stimulation.
Changes in levels of ions and nutrients in blood that simulates hormone release
78
Give an example of humoral endocrine gland stimulation
An increase in glucose (nutrient) stimulates the pancreas (endocrine gland) to release inulin (hormone) which will allow tissues to absorb glucose resulting in a decrease in blood glucose
79
Define neural endocrine gland stimulation
neural activity that stimulates hormone release
80
Sympathetic neural activation of the adrenal medulla to release EPI and NE is an example of ________ endocrine gland stimulation
Neural
81
What are the three types of endocrine gland stimulation?
Hormonal
Humoral
Neural
82
What hormones are produced in the anterior pituitary?
```
FSH
LH
ACTH
TSH
Prolactin
GH
Endorphins
(FLATPEG)
```
83
List the hormone producing cells in the anterior pituitary
```
Somatotrophs
Thyrotrophs
Gonadotrophs
Lactotrophs
Corticotrophs
```
84
What hormones do Somatotrophs make?
GH
85
What hormones do thyrotrophs make?
TSH
86
What hormones do Gonadotrophs make?
LH
| FSH
87
What hormones do Lactotrophs produce?
PRL
88
What hormones do Corticotrophs make?
ACTH
89
What hormones are produced in the posterior pituitary?
Oxytocin
| ADH
90
What regulates the secretion of adrenocorticotropin hormone?
```
Corticotropin Releasing Hormone (CRH)
arginine Vasopressin (AVP)
```
91
What regulates the secretion of GH?
GHRH
92
What is the function of ACTH?
controls the production and secretion
| of cortisol and other glucocorticoids by the adrenal gland
93
What is the function of GH
promote synthesis & secretion of insulin-like growth factors (IGFs) (somatomedins) by liver, skeletal muscle, cartilage, and bone cells
94
ACTH release is induced by
corticotropin-releasing hormone
stress-related stimuli (low blood glucose or physical trauma)
interleukin-1 (macrophages)
95
ACTH release is induced by
corticotropin-releasing hormone
stress-related stimuli (low blood glucose or physical trauma)
interleukin-1 (macrophages)
96
Low blood glucose will stimulate the release of what hormone?
ACTH
97
What inhibit ACTH secretion?
Cortisol
| ACTH
98
List the effects of ACTH
Regulate output of cortisol & aldosterone
Enhance FA mobilization from adipose
Increase gluconeogenesis
stimulate protein synthesis
99
What is the target of ATCH
the adrenal cortex
100
What hormones are released from the adrenal cortex and how are they stimulated
Glucocorticcoids (cortisol) & Mineral Corticoids (ADH) & Androgens,
ATCH
101
What is the function of TSH
maintain growth and development of the thyroid gland
102
TSH controls the secretion of what hormone?
Thyroid Hormone
103
TSH secretion to control thyroid hormone secretion is an example of what type of endocrine gland secretion ?
Hormonal
104
What is the stimulus for TSH release?
Thyrotropin Releasing Hormone
105
What inhibits TRH?
High levels of T3 and T4
106
What part of the posterior pituitary produces antidiuretic hormone (ADH) or vasopressin.
Supraoptic nucleus
107
What part of the posterior pituitary produces oxytocin?
Paraventricular nucleus
108
What is the target of PTH
bone
kidney
small intestines
109
What is the role of PTH (parathyroid hormone)
To raise blood calcium levels
110
Which thyroid hormone raises metabolism of all cells except in
the brain, spleen, testes, uterus, and thyroid gland
T4
111
Which thyroid hormone helps neural reflex activity
T3
112
Which hormone activates osteoclasts to digest bone causing a release of calcium into the blood?
Parathyroid Hormone
113
Which hormone enhances calcium reabsorption in the kidneys and intestines?
Parathyroid Hormone
114
What does vasopressin do
decreases urine production
Causes kidneys to return more water to the blood
Induces sweating & constriction of arterioles (increases blood pressure)
115
What induces ADH secretion
blood osmotic pressure & blood volume
116
What inhibits ADH
Alcohol
117
The thyroid gland secretes ____, ______, and ______
| thyroid-stimulating hormone
T3
T4
Calcitonin
118
T/F T3 and T4 are lipid soluble and can diffuse across the membrane but need a carrier protein in the blood
True
119
Low blood levels of T3 and T4, conditions that increase ATP demand, or low
metabolic rate stimulate the hypothalamus to secrete
TRH
120
TRH acts on what gland to produce what hormone
Anterior pituitary
| TSH
121
How does ADH limit large urine production?
Stimulates water reabsorption
122
Calcitonin is produced from what gland, what cells?
Thyroid, parafollicular cells
123
What does calcitonin do?
lower blood calcium
124
What cells secrete parathyroid hormone
principle cells
125
What are the 6 actions of thyroid hormones?
Increase basic metabolic rate--increase oxygen consumption
Calorigenic effect – stimulate the synthesis of Na+/K+ ATPase
Increase the use of glucose and fatty acids for ATP synthesis – stimulates protein synthesis – increases lipolysis & enhances cholesterol excretion
Enhance catecholamine action
Growth and development
Nervous System
MAKE MORE ATP
126
How do thyroid hormones enhance catecholamine action?
Upregulate Beta receptors for NE and EPI increasing HR and BP
127
T/F: Increasing Cardiac Output increases blood pressure
True
128
Describe the control of thyroid hormone secretion
Low levels of T3, T4 and calcitonin triggers the hypothalamus to secrete TRH which stimulates the anterior pituitary to secrete TSH which stimulates the thyroid gland to secrete thyroid hormone.
High levels of thyroid hormone inhibits TRH secretion thus inhibiting TSH
129
Describe how calcitonin and PTH play a role in calcium homeostasis.
An decreased level of blood calcium causes the release of PTH which will cause an increase in blood calcium by various mechanisms.
When blood calcium is high calcitonin is secreted to decrease the levels to a normal state
130
How does calcitonin regulate blood calcium levels?
Lowers blood calcium levels by:
reducing Ca uptake by kidneys
store calcium in bone
131
The catecholamine released from the adrenal medulla that stimulates glycogenolysis and lipolysis
Epinephrine
132
The adrenal hormone that provides powerful lipolytic stimulation in adipose
Norepinephrine
133
T/F Exercise is a potent stimulator for ADH release
True
134
T/F ADH causes the kidneys to return more water to the blood
True
135
T/F EPI levels remain unchanged until about 60% VO2 Max
True
136
Is cortisol a protagonist or antagonist to insulin?
Antagonist
137
How is cortisol an antagonist to insulin?
It inhibits cellular glucose uptake and oxidation
138
What type of adrenal hormone is aldosterone?
mineralcorticoid
139
Mineralcorticoids regulate
salts, sodium and potassium in the ECF
140
What does aldosterone do?
control total Na concentration and ECF volume
stimulates Na reabsorption in kidneys
Stabilize serum potassium and pH
141
What does cortisol do?
```
promote breakdown of protein to AAs
Support action of other hormones
Inhibit cellular glucose uptake and oxidation
promote TAG breakdown
Suppress immune system function
produce negative calcium balance
```
142
Which hormone suppresses immune system function ?
Cortisol
143
Describe how cortisol is released
Stimulants like stress infection hypoglycemia and infection stimulate the hypothalamus to secrete CRH making the anterior pituitary secrete ACTH making the adrenal cortex to secrete coritsol
144
How do glucocorticoids have an anti-inflammatory effect?
Inhibit WBCS
145
What layer of the adrenall gland produces androgens?
Zona reticular
146
What hormone stimulates the release of androgens?
ACTH
147
What class of adrenal hormones stimulate male and female sex organs to grow and secrete hormones faster?
Gonadotripic hormones
148
What inhibits FSH
Estrogen, testosterone
149
What are the gonadotropic hormones?
LH and FSH
150
What is the function of PRL
Initiates and maintains milk secretion
| by mammary glands (in conjunction with estrogen, progesterone, glucocorticoids, hGH, T4, and insulin)
151
What is the function of LH
riggers ovulation, formation of the corpus luteum & induces its release of progesterone; FSH plus LH stimulate secretion of estrogen from ovarian cells (preparation of uterus for implantation of fertilized ovum & mammary glands for secretion)
152
What cells secrete glucagon?
Alpha cell
153
What cells secrete insulin?
Beta cells
154
What cells secrete somatostatin ?
Delta cells
155
What cell secrete pancreatic polypeptide?
F (PP) cells
156
What does glucagon do?
Stimulates glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis by the liver and increases lipid catabolism
157
What controls glucagon output?
Low glucose levels
158
What controls insulin output?
High glucose levels
159
What does insulin do?
control glucose uptake and reduces blood glucose concentration
160
What effect does increased insulin secretion have on adipose tissue?
Increase FA and TAG synthesis
| decrease Lipolysis
161
What cells secrete insulin?
Beta cells
162
Low blood glucose stimulates glucagon secretion from what cells?
Alpha
