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Life Sciences 2 > Exam > Flashcards

Exam Flashcards

1
Q

What biomolecules metabolism that need lymphatic system?

A

Lipid

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2
Q

Plague

A
  • Bacteria (gram -)
  • Host is a rodent, flea bites rodent and
    aquires the disease then the flea bites
    human. Humans can then transfer to
    others via droplets.
  • Flu symptoms, vomiting and swollen lymph
    nodes.
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3
Q

Smallpox

A
  • Virus
  • Fatigue, abdominal pain, bumps with clear
    liquid which begins on face and hands then
    spread to the rest of the body.
  • Person to person via infective droplets.
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4
Q

Tuberculosis

A
  • Bacteria (gram +)
  • Leading causing death from infections
    disease.
  • Slowly waste away, becoming pale and thin
    before dying.
  • Was considered fashionable.
  • Usually infects the lungs.
  • Chronic back pain (thoracic region)
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5
Q

Malaria

A
  • Protozoa
  • Mosquitos carry and bite people where the
    parasite enters the blood stream, it will
    invade red blood cells and destroys it.
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6
Q

Cholera

A
  • Bacteria (gram -)
  • Water borne, so drinking contaminated water
    or food.
  • Will invade the small intestine where it
    released a toxin causing massive fluid loss
    resulting in shock then death.
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7
Q

Influenza

A
  • RNA virus
  • Muscle aches, fever, chills, fatigue
  • Human to human transmission, usually
    droplet.
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8
Q

Coronavirus

A
  • MERS, SARS and SARS-CoV2 virus
  • Droplet and airborne particles spread
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9
Q

HIV/Aids

A
  • Virus
  • Unprotected sex, needle sharing, blood
    products.
  • Affects T cells and weakens immune system.
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10
Q

Microorganism and human health

A

Can either be helpful or harmful to human health. Can cause disease but also are vital in processes in the body.

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11
Q

Characteristic of proteins as biomolecules (monomers, bond, denature)

A

Monomer: Amino Acids
Bond: Peptide bond
Denature:
- pH = influence protonation of charged side
groups
- Temp. = Disrupts H-bonding
- Ionic (salt) conc. = Interferes with ionic bonds
- Agitation = Disrupts H-bonding

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12
Q

John snow

A
  • Contaminated water (cholorea outbreak in London)
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13
Q

Robert Koch

A
  • Father of medical microbiology
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14
Q

Edward Jenner

A
  • Developed first vaccine (smallpox)
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15
Q

Enzyme inhibitor (competitive and non)

A

Competitive:
- Bind to active site “unproductively” block true
substrates access.

Allosteric:
- Distorts conformation of the enzyme
- Stabilizes

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16
Q

Alexander Fleming

A
  • Discovered penicillin
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17
Q

Aristotle

A
  • Early contributions to biology, classifying organisms.
  • Spontaneous generation theory
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18
Q

Louis Pasteur

A
  • Invented the term vaccine
  • First vaccine for rabies and anthrax
  • Developed germ theory
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19
Q

Bacteria gram staining

A
  • A procedure to classify bacteria by the
    ability of the cell wall to absorb a crystal
    violet dye followed by a red safranin
    counter stain.
  • Positive = blue/purple
  • Negative = red/pink
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20
Q

Fundamental Steps in Glycolysis:

A

Glycolysis, occurring in the cytoplasm, involves the breakdown of glucose (6-carbons) into two molecules of pyruvate (3-carbons each).

It is divided into two phases: Preparatory Phase (consumes 2 ATP) and Payoff Phase (produces 4 ATP and 2 NADH).

Overall, glycolysis yields a net gain of 2 ATP molecules and 2 NADH molecules.

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21
Q

The Australian health care system (state and federal what do they fund)

A

Federal is responsible for 3 programs:
- Medicare
- Pharmaceutical benefits schemes
- Private health insurance rebate

State and territory:
- Delivery of public health services (public
hospitals)
- population health
- Community and public health services

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22
Q

Who pays for medicare and what %?

A
  • Australian taxpayers
  • 2%
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23
Q

Digestive enzymes

A

Carbohydrates -> glucose:
- Amylase
- Sucrase
- Maltase
- Lactase

Proteins -> Amino Acids:
- Pepsin
- Protease
- Peptidase

Fats -> fatty acids + glycerol:
- Lipase

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24
Q

Roles of the pancreas

A

Produces Digestive Enzymes:
- Secretes enzymesto help break down food in
the small intestine.

Produces Insulin:
- Releases insulin to regulate blood sugar
levels by helping cells take in glucose.

Produces Glucagon:
- Releases glucagon to raise blood sugar when
levels are too low.

Neutralizes Stomach Acid:
- Secretes bicarbonate to neutralize stomach
acid entering the small intestine.

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25
Q

Storage of carbohydrates

A

Stored as:
- Glycogen (a form of glucose).

Where:
- Liver: Releases glucose into the blood when
needed.
- Muscles: Used for energy during exercise.

How much:
- Limited storage (about 100g in liver, 300–
400g in muscles).

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26
Q

Storage of lipids

A

Stored as:
- Triglycerides (fat).

Where:
- Fat cells (Adipose Tissue): Main place for
storing fat.
- Muscles: Some fat is stored here too.

How much:
- Large storage capacity, can store much more
fat than carbohydrates.

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27
Q

Krebs Cycle

A

Occurs in the mitochondrial matrix.

Pyruvate from glycolysis is converted to Acetyl-CoA, which enters the cycle.

Each cycle generates 1 ATP, 3 NADH, 1 FADH2, and 2 CO2 per Acetyl-CoA molecule.

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28
Q

Classes of Lipids

A
  1. Free Fatty Acids
  2. Triacylglycerols
  3. Phospholipids
  4. Glycolipids
  5. Steroids
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29
Q

Utilisation of Lipids

A

Energy:
- Cells break down fatty acids for ATP.

Storage:
- Excess lipids are stored in fat tissue for later
energy use.

Other Uses:
- Lipids help build cell membranes, hormones,
and signaling molecules.

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30
Q

Digestion of Lipids

A

Mouth:
- Minimal digestion begins with lingual lipase
in saliva.

Stomach:
- Gastric lipase further breaks down
triglycerides.

Small Intestine:
- Bile (from the liver) emulsifies fat, breaking it
into smaller droplets.
- Pancreatic lipase converts these droplets into
fatty acids and monoglycerides for absorption.

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31
Q

Germ theories across time

A

Spontaneous Generation Theory:
- Aristotle proposed that living organisms
could arise from non-living matter (flies from
rotting meat)

Germ Theory Development and Proof:
- Louis Pasteur disproved spontaneous
generation theory.
- He proved that food spoiled because of
contamination by invisible bacteria, not
because of spontaneous generation. Pasteur
stipulated that bacteria caused infection and
disease.

Kochs Postulates:
- Robert Koch established Kochs Postulates to
link specific microbes to specific diseases,
providing concrete proof for germ theory

32
Q

Cellular characteristics of microorganisms and human cells: Nucleus

A

Human Cells:
- Have a nucleus (the control center with DNA -
inside).

Microorganisms:
- Bacteria: No nucleus; DNA floats in the cell.
- Fungi and Parasites: Have a nucleus like
human cells.
- Viruses: No nucleus or cell structure; just
genetic material.

33
Q

Cellular characteristics of microorganisms and human cells: Cell Structure

A

Human Cells:
- Have complex parts like mitochondria (for
energy) and other organelles.

Microorganisms:
- Bacteria: Simpler structure with no inner
parts like mitochondria.
- Fungi and Parasites: Have parts like human
cells but often simpler.
- Viruses: No cell structure; they rely on a host
cell to survive.

34
Q

Cellular characteristics of microorganisms and human cells: Cell Wall

A

Human Cells:
- No cell wall; only a soft outer membrane.

Microorganisms:
- Bacteria: Have a tough cell wall.
- Fungi: Have a cell wall (different from
bacteria).
- Viruses and Parasites: Usually no cell wall.

35
Q

Cellular characteristics of microorganisms and human cells: Reproduction

A

Human Cells:
- Divide through processes called mitosis or
meiosis.

Microorganisms:
- Bacteria: Reproduce quickly by splitting in
two.
- Fungi: Reproduce by spores or dividing.
- Viruses: Can’t reproduce alone; they need a
host cell.
- Parasites: Often have complex life cycles with different stages.

36
Q

Cellular characteristics of microorganisms and human cells: Genetic Material

A

Human Cells:
- DNA is organized in a nucleus.

Microorganisms:
- Bacteria: DNA is circular and floats in the cell.
- Fungi and Parasites: DNA is in a nucleus, like
human cells.
- Viruses: DNA or RNA, often with a simple
structure.

37
Q

Cellular characteristics of microorganisms and human cells: Energy Production

A

Human Cells:
- Use mitochondria to make energy.

Microorganisms:
- Bacteria: Make energy in the cell membrane
(no mitochondria).
- Fungi and Parasites: Use mitochondria like
human cells.
- Viruses: Can’t make energy; rely on host cells.

38
Q

What is the main structural difference between prokaryotes and eukaryotes?

A

Prokaryotes lack a true membrane-bound nucleus, while eukaryotes have a membrane-bound nucleus.

39
Q

Determinants of health

A

Biomedical factors:
- relate to the way the body works.
- Hypertension, asthma, athritis

Lifestyle and Behavioural Factors:
- refers to behaviours
- Smoking, poor diet, alcohol

Knowledge, attitudes and beliefs:
- these influence our lifestyle, behaviour and therefore our health.

Genetic factors:
- these are things you are bornwith and are determined by genes which could be faulty.
- Susceptibility to cancer, down syndrome

Environmental Factors:
- can come from a variety of environments such as political, social, economic and physical
- Government decisions on funding, culture, income

40
Q

What are Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria?

A

Gram-positive: Bacteria with a thicker peptidoglycan cell wall, which retains the crystal violet stain.

Gram-negative: Bacteria with a thinner peptidoglycan layer, which do not retain the crystal violet stain and take up a red safranin counterstain.

41
Q

Anti-microbial agents

A
  • Antibacterial
  • Antifungal
  • Antiviral
  • Antiprasite
42
Q

Characteristics of bacteria

A
  1. Unicellular
  2. Prokaryotic
    - Lack a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles
  3. Reproduce by Binary Fission
  4. Diverse Environments
    - Soil, water and human body
  5. Helpful or Harmful
    - Some aid digestion and make vitamins while others cause infections
43
Q

Characteristics of viruses

A
  1. Not cells
  2. Need a host to reproduce
  3. Very small particles
    - Much smaller than bacteria
  4. Highly specific to hosts
    - Infect only specific cells or organisms
44
Q

Characteristics of fungi

A
  1. Eukaryotic
    - Have a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles
  2. Can be unicellular or multicellular
  3. Absorptive feeding
    - Release enzymes to break down organic matter and absorb nutrients
  4. Rproduce by Spores
  5. Can cause infections
45
Q

Characteristics of parasites

A
  1. Live on or in a host
  2. Can be multicellular or unicellular
  3. Complex Life Cycles
  4. Cause various diseases
  5. Diverse habitats
46
Q

Why is antimicrobial resistance a global health issue?

A

It threatens the effectiveness of life-saving antibiotics, potentially increasing post-operative infection rates and making treatments riskier.

47
Q

What factors contribute to the development of antimicrobial resistance?

A

Overprescription, misuse, inappropriate antibiotic use (wrong dose, wrong duration), and prolonged hospitalizations are key contributors.

48
Q

Properties and Functions of carbohydrates

A
  • Monosaccharides joined by glycosidic bonds
  • CHO
    1. Energy Source
  • Primary energy source
    2. Structure
  • Contribute to structural components in cells
49
Q

Properties and Functions of lipids

A
  • Fatty acids and glycerol linked by ester bonds
  • CHO
    1. Energy Source
  • Secondary source of energy
    2. Insulation and protection
    3. Cell Membrane Structure
  • Phospholipids provide fluidity and integrity
    4. Hydrophobic Nature
  • Mostly non-polar so therefore are insoluble in water
    5. Hormone and signaling
  • Some lipids act as hormones (steroids)
50
Q

Properties and Functions of Proteins

A
  • Amino Acids linked by peptide bonds
    -CHONS
    1. Structure and support
  • Provide structural support in tissues, such as collagen in connective tissue.
    2. Enzymatic Activity
  • Many function as enzymes
    3. Transport and Storage
    4. Immune defence
  • Proteins form antibodies and other immune molecules
    5. Hormonal and regulatory
  • Some function as hormones and regulate processes like metabolism and growth.
    6. Contractile and Motor Functions
  • Proteins like actin and myosin facilitate muscle contraction and movement.
51
Q

Incidence and Prevalence

A

Incidence:
- Number or rate of new cases of a particular condition during a specific time.

Prevalence:
- number or proportion of cases of a particular disease or condition present in a population at a given time

52
Q

Burden of Disease

A

The effect of a condition or disease on health through:
- Years lost from premature death
- Years spent in poor health

53
Q

Types of Costs

A

Direct costs
– Are costs which can have a monetary value
attached to them, often related to health services.

Indirect costs
- Are costs which cannot have an exact money
value attached to them and are often incurred by others

Intangible costs
– Cannot have a monetary value attached to
them and are often social and emotionally based.

54
Q

Mortality and Morbidity

A

Mortality:
- Refers to death and is an important measure of health status

Morbidity:
- ill health and can refer to an individual or population.
- It relates to the rate at which a particular disease or illness occurs

55
Q

Mechanical Vs Chemical digestion of carbohydrates

A

Mouth:
- Salivary amylase breaks down starch, long
carbohydrate molecules into shorter chains.
Stomach:
- Carbohydrate digestion continues, HCL
inhibits amylase, halting biochemical
digestion.
Small Intestine:
- Brush border enzymes (lactase) breaks down
the disaccharide lactose to glucose and
galactose
- Monosaccharides

56
Q

Mechanical Vs Chemical digestion of proteins

A

Mouth:
- Mechanical digestion (chewing)

Stomach:
- Denaturation (HCl)
- Enzymatic digestion (pepsin)

Small inestine:
- chymotrypsin, trypsin and proteases

57
Q

Mechanical Vs Chemical digestion of lipids

A

Mouth:
- Mechanical digestion
- Maxing with saliva
- Limited enzymatic digestion (lingual lipase)
Stomach:
- Mixing/churning
- limited enzymatic digestion (gastric lipase)
Small Intestine:
- Emulsification (bile)
- Enzymatic digestion (pancreatic lipases)
- Micelles help with absorption

58
Q

Measles

A
  • RNA virus
  • Infectious droplet and airborne spread
  • Cough, coryza, conjunctivitis, rash and
    fatigue.
  • Lifelong immunity
59
Q

Mad Cow Disease

A
  • Prion (small piece of protein)
  • Cattle eat remains of other cattle/sheep as
    food and humans eat these infected cows.
  • Mortality rate = 100%
60
Q

Rabies

A
  • Virus
  • Mortality close to 100%
61
Q

Bacterial Meningitis

A
  • Bacteria
  • Glass test is used to identify meningitis rash
    as it does not fade under pressure.
62
Q

Viral Meningitis

A
  • Virus
  • Milder than bacteria
  • No rash
  • More common
63
Q

Herpes Zoster

A
  • Virus
  • Also known as shingles
64
Q

Ringworm and Impetigo

A
  • Ringworm is a fungal infection
  • Impetigo is a bacterial infection
65
Q

Cellulitis

A
  • Bacterial infection in deep skin layers.
  • Red, pain, swelling
66
Q

What are the two types of immunization?

A

Active immunization: Stimulates the immune system to create memory cells (e.g., vaccination).

Passive immunization: Transfers pre-formed antibodies (e.g., maternal antibodies during pregnancy).

67
Q

Concept of vaccination

A

To stimulate the body’s immune system to produce antibiotics that fight disease without causing the disease itself.

68
Q

How does bacteria cause disease?

A

Bacteria produce disease in one of two ways:

  • Using cells for food: The bacteria break down healthy cells for food, destroying tissues
  • Releasing toxins: The bacteria produce a toxin (poisonous protein) that is released into the bloodstream where it can travel throughout the body, disrupting normal activity and damaging tissue
69
Q

Antibiotics

A

Bactericidal
➢Kills bacteria, reduces bacterial load
Bactericidal agents inhibit synthesis of bacterial cell walls by affecting peptidoglycans Penicillins & cephalosporins Amoxicillin

Bacteriostatic
✓Inhibit growth and reproduction of bacteria
Bacteriostatic agents affect Protein production, DNA synthesis, Bacterial metabolic activities, Bacteriostatic drugs: Tetracyclines & Erythromycin,

70
Q

Vaccines

A

How do they work:
- The body is exposed to a weakened or dead pathogen
- The body’s immune cells make antibodies to attack the pathogen
- If the body is exposed to the pathogen again, the body will be prepared with antibodies

Types:
Live attenuated: contain weakened pathogen; require 1-2 doses. Examples: rotavirus, varicella

Subunit: contain killed, antigenic component of pathogen; require several doses (booster shots). Examples: pneumococcal

Inactivated: contain killed pathogen; require several doses (booster shots). Examples: Hepatitis A, rabies, inactivated poliovirus vaccine

Toxoid: contain toxin made by pathogen; may require booster shots. Examples: Diphtheria, pertussis

mRNA vaccines:
mRNA vaccines carry genetic material that teaches our cells how to make a harmless piece of “spike protein,” which is found on the surface of a virus.
Cells display this piece of spike protein on their surface, and an immune response is triggered inside our bodies. This produces antibodies to protect us from getting infected if the virus enters our bodies.

71
Q

DALY

A
  • Disability-adjusted life years
  • Measures burden of disease
  • One DALY = one year of healthy life lost due
    to disease or injury.
  • DALY = YLL + YLD
72
Q

YLL and YLD

A
  • Years of life lost (YLL)
  • Years of life spent living with an illness or disability (YLD)
73
Q

Discuss antimicrobial resistance (AMR) and its implications.

A

Definition of AMR: The ability of microorganisms to resist the effects of antimicrobial agents, making infections harder to treat.

Causes of AMR: Overuse of antibiotics, improper prescribing, lack of new antibiotics.

Impact on Public Health: Leads to longer hospital stays, higher medical costs, and increased mortality.

Solutions: Responsible antibiotic use, development of new antibiotics, and infection control measures.

74
Q

What role do bile salts play in the digestion and absorption of lipids?

A

Bile salts emulsify fats in the small intestine, breaking them into tiny droplets that increase the surface area for the enzyme lipase to act. This process aids in the digestion and absorption of lipids, allowing them to be used as a source of energy in the body.

75
Q

Describe the basic structure of a protein and its primary function in the body.

A

Proteins are composed of long chains of amino acids that fold into specific shapes, which determine their function. Proteins serve as enzymes, structural components, and signalling molecules in the body, among other functions.

76
Q

How do bacterial spores contribute to bacterial survival in harsh conditions?

A

Bacterial spores are a dormant, tough, and non-reproductive form of the cell that can survive in extreme conditions like heat, drought, and exposure to chemicals, allowing bacteria to persist until conditions are favourable for growth.

77
Q

Kochs Postulate

A

Association
The microorganism must be present in every case of the disease and not in healthy individuals

Isolation
The microorganism must be isolated from the diseased host and grown in pure culture in a laboratory

Reproduction
When a healthy host is infected with the microorganism, the same disease must develop

Re-isolation
The microorganism must be re-isolated from the new host and be identical to the original microorganism

Life Sciences 2 (9 decks)

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