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ISOM > exam 1, week 2 > Flashcards

exam 1, week 2 Flashcards

1
Q

fertilization occurs in

A

ampulla

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2
Q

general timeline

A

Day 1- zygote
Day 2- 2 blastomeres
Day 3- about 8 cells, end of synchronous division
Day 4- Morula
Day 5-6- blastocyte,
then hatching of zona pellucida-> late blastocyte, where every it is, it will attach
Day 6-8- implantation
Day 10: embryonic cells fill in the layer between trophoblast and yolk sak/amniotic cavity
Day12: chorionic cavity develops within extraembryonic mesoderm
Day 13: yolk sak divides into primary and seonddary umbilical vesicle
Day 14- chorionic cavity isolate embryo, connecting stalk formed

review pictures

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3
Q

blastomeres

A

First 2 cells after first cleavage

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4
Q

Morula

A

ball of 16 cells, made after 4 consecutive sets of division, still in zona pellucida (day 3-4)

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5
Q

blastocyst

A

cells in morula shrink leaving spaces due to getting rid of excess storage in the cytoplasm. Cell migrate to the edge allowing morula to shrink (day 4-5)

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6
Q

Trophoblast layer

A

outer edge of cells, become placenta

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7
Q

Embryooblast

A

inner cell becomes embryo

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8
Q

Blastocyst cavity

A

open space

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9
Q

further development

A

o Early hypoblast forms, otherwise undifferentiated embryoblast
o Blastocystic cavity-> exocelomic cavity
o Embryoblast-> epiblast
o Hypoblast-> exocelomic membrane
o Amniotic cavity is formed (later becomes yolk sak)
o Cytotrophoblast (cellular layer), synctyiotriphoblast (contacts maternal blood stream for nutrients and immunoresponse)
o Bilaminar disc embryo- epiblast and hypoblast
Day 10- embryonic cells fill in the layer between trophoblast and yolk sak/amniotic cavity, extra-embryonic mesoderm forms
o Chorionic cavity develops by cavitation within extraembryonic mesoderm (chroionic membrane (somatropleuric layer) and exocoelomic (splanchnopleuric or Heuser’s) Membrane)
o Yolk sak divides to primary umbilical vesicle and secondondary umbilical
o Chorionic cavity isolates embryo, connecting stalk formed

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10
Q

Parthenogenesis

A

development of zygote without fertilization, oocytes will divide

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11
Q

Cloning-

A

for stem cell research, for reproductive and therapeutic purposes

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12
Q

CNS

A

brain and spinal cord

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13
Q

white matter

A

myelinated axon tracts, relays info

on the outside of spinal cord and inside of brain

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14
Q

gray matter

A

cell bodies, dendrites, unmyelinated, neurolgia, blood

inside of spinal, inside brain

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15
Q

myelin made in CNS

A

oligodendrocytes

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16
Q

myeline made in PNS

A

schwann cells

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17
Q

PNS

A

peripheral nerves, cranial nerves (12 pairs), spinal nerves (31 pairs)
Collection of PNS cell bodies is a ganglion

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18
Q

peripheral nerves

A

bundles of axons and supporting neuroglia

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19
Q

dorsal rami

A

supply veretabral joints, deep back muscles, skin of back

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20
Q

ventral rami

A

supply the rest of the muscles, many plexuses

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21
Q

SNS

A

somatic, voluntary

2 branches
general motor (efferent)
general sensory (afferent)
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22
Q

motor pathway

A

2-3 neurons

upper motor neuron
interneuron (sometimes)
lower motor neuron

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23
Q

sensory pathway

A

cell bodies are in dorsal root ganglion

3 neurons

1st order- to spinal cord or brain
2nd order to thalamus
3rd order to cerebral cortex

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24
Q

ANS

A 
2 branches
1. visceral motor efferent (sympathetic/parasympathetic)
goes to smooth muscle
2. visceral sensory (afferent),
cell bodies in doral root
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25
Q

how many nerves at each level

A

cervical 8 nerves, 7 vertebrate over until C8

T12
L5
S5
coccylgeal

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26
Q

ANS

A

motor
sympathetic vs parsympatetic

2 neuron systems
preganglonic
postganglionic

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27
Q

sympathetic neuron

A

short, long

synapse in ganglion root

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28
Q

parasympathetic

A

long, short

synapse in wall of target

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29
Q

Sympathetic nerves

A

Lateral nerves only exist at T1-L2, only place with sympathetic cell bodies
Sympathetic nerves must travel up or down sympathetic chain

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30
Q

Rami communicans

A

White- on to ventral rami (only on T1-L2)

Gray- off to ventral rami (along entire spinal cord) superior to white

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31
Q

sympathetic to head

A

Sympathetic to head: up the chain, synapse in closest cervical ganglia

To throax- chain off gray rami communicans to closet ganglia to organ

To abdomen- 3 neurons greater, lesser, and least thoracic splanchnic nerves to preaortic ganglia (in front of aorta), also lumbar splanchnics

To pelvis- sacral splanchnics

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32
Q

3 options for sympathetic pathways

A
  1. Synapse at same level and exit into ventral rami
  2. Travel in chain, synapse at another level, exit into ventral rami,
  3. Travel through chain without synapsing, exit on splanchnic to preaortic ganglia, synapse and go to organ (splanchnic nerve)
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33
Q

Parasympathetic (cranial sacral)

A

Only derive from cranial serves 3,7,9,10 and from sacral spinal cord S2-4
Ex vagus nerve
Pelvic splanchnic nerves- carry parasympathetic fibers

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34
Q

Dermatomes

A

spinal level of sensation, area of skin where all cutaneous fibers track back to the same spinal level
Can’t be dissected

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35
Q

Cutaneous nerves

A

sensory nerves, carry axon, can be multiple spinal levels and contribute to multiple dermatomes

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36
Q

derm vs cutaneous nerve

A

Derm, cutaneous- have different patterns
Derm- trace back to 1 level, fuzzy borders
Cutaneous- trace back to a nerve, ex entrapments

37
Q

myotome

A

muscles that spinal nerves innervate

38
Q

Isomers

A

same chemical formula, different congiburation

39
Q

epimer

A

molecules that differ in arrange at a single carbon

example
galatose and glucose at C4
glucose and mannose at C2

40
Q

enantiomers

A

mirror images

example D-glucose and L-glucose

41
Q

cyclization

A

linear to cyclic, a new asymmetric carbon is made

ex: D-glucose to alpha D glucopyranose (6 C ring)

D-fructose to alpha D fructofuranose (5 C ring)

42
Q

cylicization creates

alpha vs beta

A

anomers

alpha OH below
beta OH above

interconvert by mutaroation, determines bonding

43
Q

lactose

A

galactose beta 1-4 glucose

44
Q

sucrose

A

glucose alpha 1-2 fructose

45
Q

maltose

A

glucose alpha 1-4 glucose

46
Q

isomaltose

A

glucose alpha 1-6 glucose

47
Q

glycogen

A

D glucose polymer

alpha 1,4 linear change
alpha 1,6 branch points

48
Q

starch

A

D glucose polymer

amylose: unbranched alpha 1,4 glucose bonds
amylopectin: alpha 1,4 and alpha 1,6 glucose bonds

49
Q

cellulose

A

D glucose polymer
beta 1,4 bonds

non digestible fibers

50
Q

what is the significance of isomers

A

Isomers dictate the type of bonding and physical processing

Enzymes create or digest bonds that are specific for a type of bond

51
Q 
define 
specificity
affinity
capacity
hormonal regulation

in terms of transporters

A

Specificity- what does it transport
Affinity- high affinity- active at low fasting and high fed, low affinity active at high fed
Capacity- low capacity- easily saturated
Hormonal regulation- ex insulin dependent transporters

52
Q

Basal glucose uptake

A

constant supply of glucose

53
Q

Glut 1 and 3

A

high affinity, low capacity, red blood cells and brain, constant glu supply, uptake is independent of concentration

54
Q

Glut 2

A

low affinity, high capacity, liver and pancreas, equilibrium of intracellular glu with blood glu concentrations

55
Q

Glut 4

A

GLUT 4- insulin dependent uptake after meal, high affinity, important for lowering blood glu levels, insulin increases the number of receptor on cell surface, in muscle or adipose tissue

56
Q

sources of glucose for glycolysis

A

Sources from glycogenolysis in exercising muscle
Dietary intake of carbs
Glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis in liver

57
Q

glucokinase vs hexokinase

A

Glucose to glucose-6-phosphate by hexokinase or glucokinase, uses 1 ATP, irreversible

Glucokinase- in liver and pancreas, high Km (low affinity), high Vmax, more active in fed state, inducible by insulin

Hexokinase- everywhere else, low Km (high affinity for glucose), low Vmax, more active in fasting state, allosterically inhibited by glucose-6P

58
Q

know all of glycolysis

A

AHHHHHH

59
Q

aerobic glycolysis

A

glucose -> 2 pyruvate, 2 ATP and 2 NADH (NADH to ECT, pyruvate to AcCoA to TCA)

60
Q

anaerobic glycolysis

A

glucose-> 2 lactate, 2 ATP NO NADH, lactate cannot be converted to AcCoA, cannot enter TCA cycle

61
Q

pyruvate kinase regulators

allosteric and hormonal

A

Pyruvate kinase allosteric regulators:
Inhibited by ATP
Activated by fructose 1,6-BP

Pyruvate kinase hormonal regulators:
ONLY occurs in LIVER
Glucagon inactivates pyruvate kinase via phosphorylation (directs PEP to gluconeogenesis)

62
Q

PFK-1 inhibtors

allosteric
hormonal
how it relates to PFK 2

A

PFK-1:
Inhibited by ATP and citrate
Activated by AMP and fructose 2,6 BP

PFK 1 vs 2 pathway (2 goes to fructose 2,6 BP)

Hormonal regulation:
Insulin activates PFK-2
Glucagon activates f-2,6-Bpase
Looks at pics

63
Q

Describe how pyruvate kinase deficiency results in hemolytic anemia.

A

Low pyruvate kinase leads to decreased ATP production
This impairs stability of RBCs-> change in cell shape -> echinocytes (Burr cells)-> cell lysis -> nonspherocytic hemolytic anemia

64
Q

malate-apspartate shuttles vs glyceral 3-phosphate

A

NAD/NADH
vs
FAD/FADH2
recycling

65
Q

GLUT 5

A

transports fructose from blood into cells

66
Q

3 types of artifacts

A
  • reverberation artifact (A lines)
  • Mirror-image
  • Acoustic shadowing artifact
67
Q

anechoic

A

dark (no gray),

ex blood vessel

68
Q

hypoechoic

A

dark gray

69
Q

hyperechoic

A

bright white

70
Q

linear probe

A 
high frequency (5-12)
good for arteries, veins, thyroid, lymph, skin, nerves)
71
Q

Phased Array (ECHO) probe

A

rectangular, low frequency

good for heart, lungs, thorax

72
Q

curvilinear

A

low frequency

good for gallbladder, liver, kidney, spleen, bladder, abdomen, uterus/ovaries

73
Q

intracavitary

A

low or high frequency

good for uterus/ovaries, pharynx, oral, rectal

74
Q

2 axis

A

long axis- longitudinal, sagittal plane

short- transverse axis

75
Q

RNA polymerase in Euks vs Ecoli

A

E coli- has 1 type of RNA
s unit binds directly to promotor

Euks
pol 1- rRNA
pol 2- mRNA
pol 3- tRNA

brought to RNA via transcription factors

76
Q

2 RNA inhibitors

A

Rifampin- bacteria

alpha- amanitin- euk

77
Q

Rifampin

A

antibiotic

bacterial RNA polymerase inhibitor, binds b subunit and blocks the path of nascent RNA. Mutations in b subunit prevent rifampin binding

78
Q

alpha amanitin

A

poisonous mushroom

a-amanitin binds to the largest subunit of eucaryotic RNA polymerase

79
Q

The presence of nucleus in eucaryotic cells uncouples

A

translation from transcription

80
Q

mRNA editing

A

Euk mRNAs are modified by addition of a 7-methyl guanosine cap at the 5’-end and a polyA tail at the 3’-end. Following their modifications, these mRNAs are subjected to splicing.

81
Q

mRNA splicing

A

Splicing involves spliceosomes (ribonucleoproteins), conserved 5’-splice (donor), branch and 3’-splice (acceptor) sites that facilitate transesterification

82
Q

alternative splicing example

A

calcitonin and CGRP synthesis

83
Q

tRNA processing

A

tRNAs are processed by ribozyme RNAse P, endonuclease and ligase

84
Q

rRNA processing

A

on the other hand, are processed by chemical modifications and cleavage of a large precursor RNA

85
Q

RNA editing examples

A

Same pre-mRNA leads to two apolipoprotein B100 and B48. Apolipoprotein B48 arises due to editing of CAA to UAA, a stop codon

86
Q

transcription factors

A

bind to promoter for basal transcription

87
Q

Pit 1 and Prop 1

A

Pit 1- regulates growth hormone
Prop 1- regulates Pit 1
Both are transcription factors. When mutated it leads to GH deficiency

88
Q

Huntington protein

A

Brain dervived neurotrophic factor (BDNT)
Normal huntingon gene- REST is bound, can make NRSE-> BDNT occurs
Mutant huntington- REST is loose -> represses NRSE-> no BDNF- death or neurols

ISOM (9 decks)

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