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Psychology > Exam 1: Study Guide > Flashcards

Exam 1: Study Guide Flashcards

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1
Q

Psychology

A

The science of behavior and mental experience

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2
Q

Wilhelm Wundt

A
  • Father of psychology
  • Used scientific method to study psychological processes
  • Wrote first psychology textbook (1874)
  • Established first psychology research laboratory at the University of Leipzig, Germany (1879)
  • Developed the method of introspection (examining one’s own thoughts and mental activities)
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3
Q

Edward Titchener

A
  • Structuralism
    * Analyzes complex experiences in terms of their simplest components
    * Led by Titchener (Cornell)
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4
Q

William James

A
  • Functionalism
    * Focuses on how behaviors help us adapt to our environment
    * Led by James (Harvard)

• Inspired Evolutionary Psychology

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5
Q

Structuralism

A
  • Analyzes complex experiences in terms of their simplest components
  • Led by Titchener (Cornell)
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6
Q

Functionalism

A
  • Focuses on how behaviors help us adapt to our environment

* Led by James (Harvard)

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7
Q

Case Study

A

A detailed analysis of a single individual

*Case study, naturalistic observation and survey research can only provide clear information about correlation not causation.

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8
Q

Naturalistic observation

A

Observing and recording behavior as it naturally occurs in real life

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9
Q

Survey research

A
  • Study of beliefs, attitudes, or behaviors based on people’s answers to questions.
  • Importance of a random sample in survey research

*Can’t draw causal conclusions from case study, naturalistic observation and survey research.

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10
Q

Random sample

A
  • Each member of the population must have an equal chance of being included in the study
  • Represents the population
  • Allows you to generalize findings from sample to population
  • Importance of a random sample in survey research
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11
Q

Positive correlation

A
  • the more X, the more Y

* the less X, the less Y

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12
Q

Negative correlation

A
  • the more X, the less Y

* the less X, the more Y

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13
Q

Correlation

A

A measure of the relationship between two variables

When X is correlated with Y, it may be that:

1) X causes Y
2) Y causes X
3) A third variable causes both X and Y

The Problem: Which one is correct? Don’t know.
Can’t draw causal conclusions from correlational data. Can’t draw causal conclusions from case study, naturalistic observation and survey research.

*Case study, naturalistic observation and survey research can only provide clear information about correlation not causation.

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14
Q

Causation

A

the demonstration of how one variable influences another variable or other variables.

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15
Q

Experiment

A
  • Researcher manipulates the independent variable(s) and observes how this affects the dependent variable(s)
  • 3 Crucial Ingredients in experiments:
  1. Manipulating the independent variable(s)
  2. Measuring the dependent variable(s)
  3. Random assignment
  • Advantages of The Experiment:
    * Most powerful method because it allows us to determine cause & effect.
  • Disadvantages of The Experiment:
    * What happens in experiments may not reflect what happens in the real world.
    * Some variables may be impossible or unethical to manipulate.
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16
Q

Independent Variable (IV)

A

The variable the researcher changes or controls to see if it has a causal effect on the dependent variable

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17
Q

Dependent Variable (DV)

A

The variable the researcher measures to see if it is affected by the independent variable

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18
Q

Random assignment

A
  • Assigning participants to different IV groups so that each person has an equal chance of being assigned to any of the groups
  • Makes the groups as similar as possible before we manipulate the IV
  • 1 of the 3 crucial ingredients in an experiment
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19
Q

Biological perspective

A

Focuses on the biological bases of behavior and mental processes

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20
Q

Neurons

A

• Cells that make up the nervous system (brain, spinal cord, etc.)
• 100 billion+ neurons
• Cell body (soma) – nucleus with chromosomes
• Dendrites – receive information from other neurons
• Axon – transmits information to other neurons, muscles, and glands
• Myelin:
o Insulating layer of fatty material
o Composed of glial cells
o Helps transmit information down the axon
o Gaps in myelin sheath are called nodes of Ranvier

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21
Q

4 Types of Neurons

A
  • Sensory (or afferent) neurons: Carry messages from sense organs to spinal cord or brain.
  • Motor (or efferent) neurons: Carry messages from spinal cord or brain to muscles and glands.
  • Interneurons (or association neurons): Carry messages from one neuron to another.
  • Mirror neurons: Specialized neurons (in the frontal and parietal lobes) that become activated when we observe others perform a behavior or express an emotion
  • Glial cells (or glia): Cells that insulate and support neurons by holding them together, provide nourishment and remove waste products, prevent harmful substances from passing into brain, and form myelin sheath
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22
Q

Action Potential

A
  • Neurons communicate through electrochemical impulses.
  • The action potential is the sequence of electrical charges moving down the cell – the firing of the nerve cell.
  • A neuron contains charged particles called ions.
  • When at rest, the neuron is negatively charged on the inside and positively charged on the outside (the resting potential); at this point, the neuron is in a state of polarization.
  • When stimulated, the charge is reversed by allowing positive sodium ions to enter the cell, a process called depolarization.
  • Neurons do not fire in response to a single message from another neuron. A single message causes a small, temporary shift in the electrical charge, called a graded potential. For a neuron to fire, impulses from many neurons must exceed a certain minimum threshold of excitation.
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23
Q

Summary of an Action Potential

A
  • Cell membrane of axon opens
  • Positive ions flow into the axon
  • Initiates the firing of the neuron
  • Transmits the information down the axon
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24
Q

Neurotransmitters

A
  • Acetylcholine (Ach)
  • Dopamine
  • Serotonin
  • Norepinephrine
  • Endorphins
  • When excessive amounts of temperature or pressure are applied to the touch receptors on the surface of your skin (organs, bones, muscles), a neurotransmitter called substance P is released, triggering a pain signal.
  • Gate-Control Theory: When neurotransmitter P is released into the spinal cord, it activates other pain receptors by opening “gates” in the spinal column and sending the message to the brain.
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25
Q

Acetylcholine (Ach)

A

Enables muscle action, learning and memory. With alzheimers, Ach producing neurons deteriorate.

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26
Q

Dopamine

A

Influences movement, learning, attention and emotion. High levels linked to schizophrenia, low levels linked to Parkinson’s disease.

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27
Q

Serotonin

A

Affects mood, hunger, sleep, arousal. Low levels linked to depression.

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28
Q

Norepinephrine

A

Helps control alertness and arousal. Low levels depress mood.

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29
Q

Endorphins

A

Boosts mood, lessens pain. Artificial opiates cause brain to stop producing endorphins.
o Acupuncture:
- Needles stimulate the body to increase the release of endorphins, which block substance P (substance P is responsible for triggering a pain signal)

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30
Q

Dopamine and Parkinson’s disease

A

Results from the death of neurons that produce dopamine (influences movement)
• Symptoms: Difficulty moving, tremors

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31
Q

Reticular formation

A

a nerve network in the brainstem, controls arousal

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32
Q

Brain Structure and Behavior

A

According to Eysenck’s theory:

• Extraverts have less arousable reticular formation
o they are easily bored
o seek stimulation to maintain their brain activity levels

• Introverts have more activity in the reticular formation
o they are easily aroused
o avoid external stimulation, seek relaxing environments

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33
Q

Amygdala

A

part of the limbic system, involved in emotion and aggression

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34
Q

Hippocampus

A

part of the limbic system involved in learning and memory

35
Q

Cerebral cortex

A
  • frontal lobe: planning, speech and thinking
  • primary motor cortex: fine movement control
  • primary somatosensory cortex: awareness of location of body parts
  • parietal lobe: body sensations
  • occipital lobe: vision
  • temporal lobe: hearing, advanced visual processing
36
Q

Left hemisphere of brain

A

o Controls the right side of the body

o Involved with language, logical thought, analysis, mathematical abilities, and processes information in pieces

37
Q

Right hemisphere of brain

A

o Controls the left side of the body

o Involved in spatial, musical, artistic abilities, recognition of emotions, and processes information in whole

38
Q

Corpus callosum

A

bridge of fibers passing information between the 2 cerebral hemispheres

39
Q

Frontal lobe

A

o Planning, speech and thinking
o primary motor cortex: fine movement control
o Motor Cortex: The motor cortex in the frontal lobe controls the voluntary muscles of the body. Cells at the top of the motor cortex control muscles at the bottom of the body, whereas cells at the bottom of the motor cortex control muscles at the top of the body.
o Smell (Olfaction): The cilia, tiny hairlike cells that project into the nasal cavity, are the receptors for the sense of smell. The neural signals then go to the olfactory bulbs under the frontal lobes.

40
Q

Parietal lobe

A
  • Body sensations
  • Nerve impulses sent to the parietal lobe for taste perception
  • Mirror neurons: Specialized neurons (in the frontal and parietal lobes) that become activated when we observe others perform a behavior or express an emotion
  • The somatosensory cortex, located in the parietal lobe just behind the motor cortex, receives information about the sense of touch and body position.
41
Q

Occipital lobe

A

o Vision
o Info in right visual field stimulate left half of retinas and travel to the left occipital lobe
o Info in left visual field stimulate right half of retinas and travel to the right occipital lobe

42
Q

Temporal lobe

A

hearing, advanced visual processing

43
Q

Plasticity

A
  • Environment can change our brain
  • Rosenzweig (1984) demonstrated the importance of experience to neural development. Rats raised in more complex environments had larger neurons and more synaptic connections, and better at solving problems
  • Neurogenesis: Recent research has revealed that adult brains are capable of producing new brain cells. Raises new possibilities for the treatment of neurological disorders and spinal cord injuries, either through the use of stem cells or by stimulating the brain’s own stem cells to provide “self-repair.”
44
Q

Transduction

A

o Sensory receptors convert sensory stimulation into neural impulses

45
Q

Sensation

A

o Stimulation of sense organs (receptors in eyes, nose, skin, mouth)
o Somesthetic Senses: How we experience the sensations of touch, pressure, temperature, and pain.
- Skin senses (touch, pressure, temperature, pain)
- Kinesthetic sense (location of body parts in relation to one another)
- Vestibular senses (movement, body position)

46
Q

Perception

A

o Organization and interpretation of sensory info
o Constructive Perception: The brain actively constructs our perception and makes its “best guess”
o Expectancy Effects: Our expectations affect our perceptions
o Visual Cliff: Used to test depth perception in infants. Babies develop depth perception at about the time they begin to crawl
o All color perception derives from three types of cones in the retina: red, green, and blue.

47
Q

Gestalt psychology

A

o Important view in the study of sensation and perception
o People perceive things as wholes (not as separate elements)
o Ex: When you listen to music you hear whole melodies not separate notes
o Gestalt:
- An organized whole
- Combine pieces of information into meaningful wholes

48
Q

Monocular cues

A

o Aids in Perceiving Depth and Distance- information from a single eye that allows us to judge depth and distance

   - object size
   - interposition
   - linear perspective
49
Q

Perceptual constancy

A

o Perceive objects as unchanging despite changes in retinal image
o Color of object
o Shape of object
o Size of object

50
Q

Expectancy effects (or perceptual set)

A

o Our expectations affect our perceptions

51
Q

The unconscious

A

Psychodynamic School: Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)
• Focused on the “unconscious mind”: Part of the mind that operates outside of awareness but influences conscious thoughts, feelings, and actions
• Led the approach to understanding human behavior that emphasizes the importance of unconscious mental processes in shaping feelings, thoughts, and behaviors
• Wrote The Interpretation of Dreams (1900)
• Psychoanalysis: Therapeutic approach that focuses on bringing unconscious material into conscious awareness to better understand psychological disorders
• Medulla: responsible for regulating unconscious processes, breathing and circulation.

52
Q

Priming

A

The unconscious activation of information

53
Q

REM sleep stage

A

Rapid eye movement (REM)
• Eyes moving under eyelids
• Rest of body is still
• 90% of dreaming occurs in this stage
• Person is asleep but EEG is similar to individual that is awake
• REM sometimes referred to as paradoxical sleep
• REM sleep occurs four or five times a night
• REM sleep at Stage 5 (relaxed muscles, dreams often occur at this stage)
• Brain waves during REM sleep resemble those observed when people are alert and awake.

54
Q

Sleep paralysis

A
  • feeling awake, being able to see and hear, but unable to move during Stage 1 sleep.
  • Psychologist Blackmore suggests that these experiences (alien abductions, visited by a ghost) may be a form or variation of sleep paralysis
  • Common experiences: Person is in bed at night, wakes up and is paralyzed, feels anxiety, intense light, buzzing sound, sense some presence. Visible or invisible entity may sit on their chest, shaking, strangling, or prodding them.
55
Q

Manifest content

A

Manifest Content:
• Surface content of a dream
• Disguises the dream’s actual meaning

  • Theory by Sigmund Freud: Interpreting Dreams
  • The Interpretation of Dreams (1900)
  • Believes that dreams are the royal road to the unconscious mind
  • Our deepest desires (and fears) appear in disguised forms in our dreams (i.e. manifest and latent content)
56
Q

Latent content

A

Latent Content:
• Hidden “real” meaning of a dream
• Reveals the unconscious mind

  • Theory by Sigmund Freud: Interpreting Dreams
  • The Interpretation of Dreams (1900)
  • Believes that dreams are the royal road to the unconscious mind
  • Our deepest desires (and fears) appear in disguised forms in our dreams (i.e. manifest and latent content)
57
Q

Activation-synthesis theory

A

• Dreams reflect random brain activity (from the brainstem, pons)

58
Q

Neurocognitive theory

A

• Dreams are a form of thinking, helping us solve problems

59
Q

Parasomnias

A

• A group of sleep disorders that involve unwanted events or experiences that occur while you are falling asleep, sleeping or waking up.
• Parasomnias may include:
- abnormal movements, behaviors, emotions, perceptions or dreams.

60
Q

Narcolepsy

A

• A disease marked by sudden and irresistible onsets of sleep during normal waking periods. Going directly from wakefulness into REM sleep, usually for a short period (10–20 minutes).

-Due to the loss of orexin neurons in the hypothalamus. Some individuals show a genetic predisposition to the disease. Stimulant drugs have been used to treat this condition with modest success.

61
Q

Insomnia

A

• Chronic problems in getting adequate sleep that result in daytime fatigue and impaired functioning. Difficulty in falling asleep initially, difficulty in remaining asleep, and persistent early-morning awakening.

62
Q

Hypnosis

A

•State of consciousness in which a person is especially susceptible to suggestion
• People differ in how well they respond to hypnotic induction. About 10%–20% of people don’t respond well at all. About 15% of people are exceptionally good hypnotic subjects.
• Hypnosis can:
- Increase relaxation
- Help control pain (undergo dental or medical procedures with hypnosis)
- Hypnotized subjects may be led to experience auditory or visual hallucinations. They may hear sounds or see things that are not there, or fail to hear or see stimuli that are present.
• 2 Theories of Hypnosis
• (1) Altered State Theory:
- Hypnotic effects occur because participants are put into a special, altered state of consciousness, called a hypnotic trance.
- Hypnosis creates a dissociation in consciousness (a splitting off of mental processes into two separate, simultaneous streams of awareness).
• (2) Sociocognitive (or Role-Playing) Theory:
•-The failure to find changes in brain activity that are consistently associated with hypnosis has led some theorists to conclude that hypnosis is a normal state of consciousness in which people act out the role of a hypnotic subject and behave as they think hypnotized people are supposed to.
- Effects of hypnosis are due to social influences.

63
Q

Behaviorism

A

• Led by John Watson
• Pavlov
• Skinner
• A prominent theoretical perspective guiding learning research in the early 1900s
• Behaviorism: Psychology should focus on the scientific study of observable behavior, not the inner workings of the mind
• Assumptions of behaviorism:
- Environment plays a powerful role in shaping behavior
- Psychology should only study observable behavior, not mental processes (inner thoughts, feelings)
• Until the beginning of the 20th century, psychology was defined as the study of mental processes. Behaviorism rebelled against this approach.

64
Q

John Watson

A

Led theoretical perspective of Behaviorism
• Assumptions of behaviorism:
- Environment plays a powerful role in shaping behavior
- Psychology should only study observable behavior, not mental processes (inner thoughts, feelings)

65
Q

Ivan Pavlov

A

Related to Behaviorism
• Classical Conditioning research was pioneered by: Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)
- Russian scientist
- Accidentally discovered classical conditioning in the salivation responses of dogs
- Won the Nobel Prize in 1904 for research on digestion

• Classic Experiment: Dogs conditioned to salivate
- Shows the process of classical conditioning. Before conditioning, the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) elicits the unconditioned response (UCR), but the neutral stimulus does not. In Pavlov’s example, the tone (neutral stimulus) elicits no response. The meat powder (UCS) elicits salivation (UCR)
- During conditioning, the neutral stimulus is paired with the unconditioned stimulus. In Pavlov’s example, the tone is paired with the meat powder (UCS), which elicits salivation (UCR).
- After conditioning, the neutral stimulus alone elicits the response; the neutral stimulus is now a conditioned stimulus (CS), and the response to it is a conditioned response (CR). In Pavlov’s example, the tone (CS) elicits salivation (CR).
• Pavlov had demonstrated was how stimulus-response associations—the basic building blocks of learning—are formed by events in an organism’s environment.

66
Q

Classical conditioning: 2 Hypothetical Examples

A

• Classical Conditioning: Hypothetical Example A

  • Let’s say someone very attractive comes up to you and gives you a big passionate kiss, producing sexual arousal. Let’s say this person has onion breath and keeps going up to you and giving you these big passionate kisses. After a while, the smell of onion produces sexual arousal in you!
  • UCS = passionate kiss
  • UCR = sexual arousal
  • neutral stimulus= onion breath, after paired with UCS, now onion breath is CS, producing CR (sexual arousal)

• Classical Conditioning: Hypothetical Example B
“Nausea Conditioning in Cancer Patients”

  • A cancer patient automatically becomes nauseous after receiving a medication. Before receiving the medication, he waits in the doctor’s waiting room. He then associates waiting in the waiting room with receiving the medication and becoming nauseous. After a few times, just waiting in the waiting room makes him nauseous.
  • UCS = drug
  • UCR = nausea
  • neutral stimulus = waiting room, which is paired with UCR
  • CS = waiting room, producing CR (nausea)
67
Q

Unconditioned stimulus

A

• Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)

- A stimulus that naturally or automatically triggers a response

68
Q

Conditioned stimulus

A

• Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
- An originally neutral stimulus that, after paired with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response

69
Q

Unconditioned response

A

• Unconditioned Response (UCR)

- The unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus

70
Q

Conditioned response

A

• Conditioned Response (CR)

- A learned response to the conditioned stimulus

71
Q

Generalization

A

The phenomenon that occurs when an organism that has learned a response to a specific stimulus responds in the same way to new stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus

72
Q

Discrimination

A
  • The phenomenon that occurs when an organism that has learned a response to a specific stimulus does not respond in the same way to new stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus
  • The Little Albert Study
73
Q

B.F. Skinner

A

• Related to Behaviorism
• B.F. Skinner (1904-1990)
• Wrote the book Walden Two, describing a fictional, utopian society that is organized around the use of operant conditioning in shaping human behavior.
• Believed that free will is an illusion.
• Developed the Skinner Box:
- An animal is placed in a chamber and can press a lever to receive a food pellet. Used to study operant conditioning.

74
Q

Operant conditioning

A

• Often the behavior learned is “voluntary” (e.g., getting good grades, cleaning one’s room, gambling, working). Learning involves associating a behavior with a consequence (reward or punishment).
• A type of learning in which a reinforcement (or a punishment) is used to shape behavior
• We learn to associate a response and its consequence
- Primary reinforcers: Innately rewarding, satisfies biological needs (e.g., food)
- Secondary reinforcers: Learned and became reinforcing when associated with a primary reinforcer (e.g., money)

75
Q

Reinforcement

A
  • Given after the desired behavior
  • Makes the behavior more likely in the future
  • Shaping: Reinforcing each behavior as it moves closer to the desired behavior
76
Q

Punishment

A

• Given after the undesired behavior
• Makes the behavior less likely in the future
• Positive punishment: Present or add an unpleasant stimulus. Behavior is weakened. Ex: You punish yourself by studying extra hours during the weekend after you get an F on a test.
• Negative punishment: Reduce or remove a pleasant stimulus. Behavior is weakened. Ex: You punish yourself by returning that awesome thing you bought after you get an F on a test.
• Problems with Punishment:
- Behavior may return when the punisher is no longer present
- Can increase: aggression, depression, suicide, child, spousal, and alcohol abuse

77
Q

Fixed-interval schedule

A

• Reinforces a behavior only after a specific time period has gone by

  • Ex: monthly paychecks
  • Ex: I need to do push-ups for 30 minutes, and then I get to eat the piece of cheesecake.
78
Q

Variable-ratio schedule

A

• Reinforces a behavior after an unpredictable number of behaviors have been done

  • gambling, fishing
  • I don’t know how many lotto tickets I need to buy before I win the jackpot.
79
Q

Fixed-ratio schedule

A
  • Reinforces a behavior only after a specific number of behaviors have been done
  • Ex: I need to do 50 push-ups, and then I get to eat the piece of cheesecake.
80
Q

Variable-interval schedule

A

• Reinforces a behavior at unpredictable time periods

- Ex: Waiting for something that you don’t know when it will happen

81
Q

Observational learning (or social learning)

A

• Learning by observing the behavior of others
• 4 key processes that are crucial in observational learning. The first 2—attention and retention—highlight the importance of cognition in this type of learning:
- Attention. Pay attention to another person’s behavior and its consequences.
- Retention. Store a mental representation of what you have witnessed in your memory.
- Reproduction. Reproduce the response by converting your stored mental images into overt behavior.
- Motivation. Finally, you are unlikely to reproduce an observed response unless you are motivated to do so.
• People are more likely to imitate the model when:
- They see the model’s behavior rewarded
- They like or respect the model
- They are similar to the model
• Observational learning can account for learning:
- based on indirect experiences
- complex behaviors quickly (learn immediately from observing others)

82
Q

Bandura’s bobo doll experiment

A
  • Shows the power of observational learning
  • Kids who saw an aggressive adult later behaved more aggressively toward the Bobo doll
  • Decades of research agreed that media violence fosters increased aggression.
  • Recent research shows that media violence desensitizes people to the effects of aggression in the real world.
  • Desensitization mutes reactions to real violence.
  • Long-term results show that the more violence children watch on TV, the more aggressive they tend to be at home and at school.
83
Q

Classical Conditioning

A

Classical Conditioning research was pioneered by : Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)
• Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)
- A stimulus that naturally or automatically triggers a response
• Unconditioned Response (UCR)
- The unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus
• Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
- An originally neutral stimulus that, after paired with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response
• Conditioned Response (CR)
- A learned response to the conditioned stimulus
• Acquisition:
- The initial stage of learning a new response tendency.
• Extinction:
- The gradual weakening and disappearance of a conditioned response tendency. The consistent presentation of the conditioned stimulus alone, without the unconditioned stimulus, leads to extinction in classical conditioning.
• Spontaneous Recovery:
- The reappearance of an extinguished response after a period of nonexposure to the conditioned stimulus

Psychology (6 decks)

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