Exam 1 Study Guide Flashcards
historicism vs presentism
historicism is the study of the past for its own sake
presentism is interpreting and evaluating historical events in terms of contemporary knowledge and standards
zeitgeist approach
the defining spirit or mood of a particular period of history as shown by the ideas and beliefs of the time
the great-person approach to historiography
empathizes the works of individuals such as Plato, Aristotle, Descartes, Darwin, or Freud.
Ralph Waldo Emerson (1841-1981) embraced the great-person approach to history, saying that history “resolves itself very easily into the biography of a few stout and earnest persons.”
historical development approach
showing how various individuals or events contributed to changes in an idea or connect through the years
for example, one could focus on how the idea of mental illness has changed throughout history
historiography
the study of the proper way to record history.
there are often no final answers to the questions this topic raises
what is the problem with viewing psychology as a science that started in the late 19th century in Germany?
1) it ignores the vast philosophical heritage that molded psychology into the tump of science that it eventually became
2) it omits important aspects of psychology that arose outside the realm of science
what is science? what are two major components of science?
science is the systematic attempt to rationally categorize or explain empirical observation. Popper described it as a way to rigorously test solutions to problems, while Kuhn emphasized the importance of paradigms that guide the research activities of science.
empirical observation
theory
rationalism
the theory that reason rather than experience is the foundation of certainty in knowledge.
empiricism
maintains that the source of knowledge is always based on sensory observation
what are the two main functions of scientific theory?
it organizes empirical observations
it acts as a guide for future observations
scientific law
a constantly observed relationship between two or more classes of empirical events. for example, when x occurs, y also tends to occur. by stressing the lawfulness, science is proclaiming an interest in the general case rather than the particular case.
correlational laws
describe how classes of events vary together in some systematic way
for example, exercise tends to correlate positively with health. with such information, only prediction is possible. that is, if we know a person’s level of exercise, we could predict his or her health, and vice versa
causal laws
specify how events are causally related
for example, if we knew the causes of a disease, we could predict and control that disease - as preventing the causes of a disease from occurring prevents the disease from occurring
determinism
the assumption that what is being studied can be understood in terms of causal laws
the determinist assumes that everything that occurs is a function of a finite number of causes that, if these causes were known, an event could be predicted with complete accuracy
however, knowing all causes of an event is not necessary; the determinist simply assumes that they exist and that as more causes are known, predictions become more accurate
what, according to Popper, drives scientific progress?
a theory’s incorrect predictions, not its correct ones
in real scientific life theories typically contribute not by being right but by being wrong. in other words, scientific advance in theory as well as experiments tends to be built upon the successive corrections of many errors, both small and large. thus the popular notion that theory must be right to be useful is incorrect
paradigm
the entire collection of beliefs, values, techniques, and so on shared by the members of a given scientific community
can have multiple theories under a paradigm (they were more general)
the paradigm can act like blinders
what do paradigms guide?
all of the researcher’s activities, both theoretical and methodological
preparadigmatic stage
a time in which a number of competing viewpoints exist
during this period, a discipline is characterized by a number of rival camps or schools, a situation contrary to unification and that results in, essentially, random fact gathering. such circumstances continue to exist until one school succeeds in defeating its competitors and becomes a paradigm
the normal science generated by a paradigm continues until the paradigm is displaced by a new one, which int turn will generate its own normal science
paradigmatic stage
puzzle solving activity called normal science occurs
psychology is a multi-paradigmatic science
revolutionary stage
a paradigm is replaced by another paradigm
what is the difference between the Popperian view and the Kuhnian view?
Kuhn’s assessment of science stresses subjective and sociological factors, whereas Popper’s assessment stresses logic and creativity
Popper believed that there are truths about the physical world that science can approximate. In other words, Popper accepted the correspondence theory of truth. Kuhn, on the other hand, rejected this theory, saying instead that the paradigm accepted by a group of scientists creates the “reality” they explore
what characterizes a scientific discipline?
1) determinism (everything occurs for known or knowable reasons
2) empiricism vs rationalism (experience and observation vs. thought and logic)
3) the search for scientific laws (correlational laws that allow us to predict events or causal laws that allow us to predict and control events)
4) relies on public observation (publicly verifiable knowledge, replication, replication)
according to popper, what is the best status of a theory?
not yet disconfirmed
risky predictions
According to Popper, predictions that run a real risk of being incorrect. Theories that do not make risky predictions or that explain phenomena after they have already occurred are, according to Popper, not scientific.
socrates (470-399 BCE)
determinist, nativist, rationalist
known only through the writings of his student Plato
responded to the skepticism created by the sophists
disagreed with the sophists contention that there is no discernible truth beyond individual opinion. socrates believed that by examining a number of individual manifestations of a concept, the general concept itself could be defined clearly and precisely
proposed that truth can be discovered though reason and logic
the socratic method of teaching is questioning
ontology
the metaphysics dealing with the study of being
epistemology
the branch of philosophy that deals with the theory of knowledge. it is the investigation of what distinguishes justified belief from opinion
the essence
universally accepted definition of a concept
plato (427-347 BC)
dualist, nativist, determinist with forms being causes
first a disciple of socrates, came under the influence of pythagoreans
postulated the existence of an abstract world of forms or ideas that, when manifested in matter, make up the objects in the empirical world. People should have as many forms, or ideal mental representations of entities, as possible to lead each individual to a more introspective place, and therefore, a better world
the only true knowledge is that of the forms, a knowledge that can be gained only by reflecting on the innate contents of the soul. sensory experience interferes with the attainment of knowledge and should be avoided
theory of forms
plato’s contention that ultimate reality consists of abstract ideas or forms that correspond to all objects in the empirical world. knowledge of these abstractions is innate and can be attained only through introspection
everyone should have as many forms in their head as possible to lead them to the best possible outcomes in life. It’s important to make everything you do in line with what you think the form is of that thing. a stone mason, in outlining his new work, would have a form sitting in front of him, or an ideal version of what this was supposed to look like, to guide his work
people living in line with forms are those that will live the most virtuous lives
aristotle (384-322 BC)
believed sensory experience to be the basis of all knowledge
although the five senses and the common sense provided only the information from which knowledge could be derived
aristotle also believed that everting in nature had within it an entelechy (purpose) that determined its potential
rejects plato’s notion of forms to embrace tabula rasa (the blank slate)
we gain knowledge only through empirical observation
distinguished between terrestrial and celestial (earthly vs. heavenly)
nativism
the idea that mental capacities and mental structures are innate rather than acquired by learning
reminiscence theory of knowledge (Plato)
the rational soul originally existed among the forms - and it retains that knowledge
sensory information contaminates knowledge of true reality
what are the causes of knowledge? (according to Aristotle)
material cause: what a thing is made of
formal cause: the form of a thing
efficient cause: force that makes something happen, or that transforms a thing
final cause: reason or purpose for a thing to exist
dualists
believes that there are physical events and mental events. Once it is assumed that both a physical and a mental realm exist, the question becomes how the two are related.
vitalism
endorsed by Aristotle - the thought that living things are fundamentally different from nonliving things
laws of association: contiguity (Aristotle)
think of one thing, tend to think of other things experienced at the same time
laws of association: frequency (Aristotle)
the more time something is experienced, the easier it is to recall
laws of association: similarity (Aristotle)
think of one thing, I also tend to think of similar things
laws of association: contrasts (Aristotle)
think of one thing, I also tend to think of opposite things
reminiscence theory of knowledge
plato’s belief that knowledge is attained by remembering the experiences the soul had when it dwelled among the forms before entering the body
plato’s legacy
plato created a dualism that divided the human into a body, which was material and imperfect, and a mind (soul), which contained pure knowledge
sophists
a specific kind of philosopher-teacher in ancient Greece
who believed that “truth” was what people thought it to be, and were inherently skeptical of their being any formal or universal truths. To convince others that something is true, one needs effective communication skills, and it was those skills that the sophists taught
empiricism
maintains that the source of knowledge is always based on sensory observation
Aristotle’s ladder of nature
Bottom (inanimate matter) -> plants (higher and lower) -> mammals, reptiles, fish, and insects -> human (top)
early christian faith
not a single system, but was a doctrine that departed significantly from the teachings of Jesus
immediate physical world is without value; important knowledge is provided by revelation/divine authority
cynicism
antisthenes and diogenes - don’t believe in anything
the belief that the best life is one lived close to nature and away from the rules and regulations of society
valued virtue above all else - for the Cynics, the purpose of life is to live in virtue, in agreement with nature
hedonism
Hedonism is a school of thought that argues that the pursuit of pleasure and intrinsic goods are the primary or most important goals of human life. A hedonist strives to maximize net pleasure. However upon finally gaining said pleasure, happiness may remain stationary
stoicism
accepted by aristocracy and slaves because it was useful in everyday life
Zeno of Citium (335-263) - founder of stoicism. believed that the world was ruled by a divine plan and that everything in nature, including humans, was there for a reason
be content with your role, be happy in your work - your joy comes from participating in the master plan
taught perfect indifference to everything external
if you couldn’t get behind the fact that there was a master plan behind all of your suffering and all of your pleasure, then suicide was a good option, according to the stoics
epicureanism (anti-determinism)
founded by epicurus in Athens
the good life is now - there is no afterlife
long-term happiness comes from the absence of pain, avoidance of extremes
one should strive for a simple, uncomplicated existence
The school rejected determinism and advocated hedonism (pleasure as the highest good), but of a restrained kind: mental pleasure was regarded more highly than physical, and the ultimate pleasure was held to be freedom from anxiety and mental pain, especially that arising from needless fear of death and of the gods.
neoplatonism
philo (25 BCE - 50 CE) plotinus (204 - 270 CE), hypatia (370 - 415 CE)
mystical version of Plato’s ideas
replaced forms with divine explanations
god is the source of all truth and knowledge
mind/body dualism: the soul is immortal, the body is sinful
salvation through repentance and faith
St. Augustine (354-430)
Bishop from Hippo, Northern Africa - augustinian pessimism
thought human life could not be perfected
came up with the idea of original sin. proposed that all humans are wicked and are all representations of Adam’s sins
we cannot properly love because we are undermined by egoism and pride
we shouldn’t rage because of our sins. We should just accept them
After having demonstrated the validity of inner, subjective experience, said that one can know God through introspection as well as through the revealed truth of the scripture. Augustine also wrote extensively on human free will
thought curiosity was a dangerous vice
synthesizes many systems in christianity
jesus (6 BC - 30 AD)
a simple, sensitive man who St. Paul and others claimed was the Messiah. those who believe Jesus to be the son of God are called christians
alas, none who formalized Jesus’ teachings ever met him, so little of Jesus’s original intent survived the various attempts to formalize his ideas
St Paul (10-64)
founded the christian church by claiming that Jesus was the son of god. paul placed the soul or spirit in the highest position among the human faculties, the body in the lowest, and the mind in a position somewhere in between
aligned with Plato in his thinking that true knowledge can be attained only by escaping from the influence of sensory information and transformed it into battle between the soul, which contains the spark of God
his influence pretty much shuts down all inquiry and the spurt of science and growth from the ancient greeks and romans ends with his assertions of Jesus being the son of god
What were augustines confessions?
he was instrumental in shifting the locus of control of human behavior from the outside (the city of man) to the inside (the city of god). this point was in contrast to roman beliefs, which taught that everyone is in charge of their own destiny and that virtue could lead you to fame, which was desirable
for him, the acceptance of free will made personal responsibility meaningful. because individuals are personally responsible for their actions, it is possible to praise or blame them, and people can feel good or bad about themselves depending on what choices they make
did the Christian appeal have wide range?
yes. to people suffering from hunger, plague, and war, a religion that focused on a more perfect, nonphysical world was comforting. to slaves and others with low status, a feeling of justice came from knowing that all humans were created in God’s image.
when did the church wield the most power?
during the middle ages. the question of what was true had already been answered, and there was no need to look elsewhere. people were either believers or heretics, and heretics were often dealt with harshly. The church owned tons of property, and the priest controlled the behavior, feelings, and thoughts of the citizens
islamic and jewish influences
the dark ages are, of course, dark only with reference to the Western world, and during this same time, Islam became more powerful. Muhammad was born in Mecca in 570, and in middle age, believers say he received a revelation from God instructing him to preach
within 100 years after the prophet’s death, Islam extended over an area larger than that of the Roman Empire at its peak
scholasticism
the system of theology and philosophy taught in medieval European universities, based on Aristotelian logic and the writings of the early Church Fathers and having a strong emphasis on tradition and dogma.
narrow-minded insistence on traditional doctrine
existing world view - the middle ages
absolute authority of the church - christian dogma emphasizes faith over reason
conflicts are resolved by appealing to authority (the bible and Aristotle)
augustine was influential - action proceeds from free will (reflects stoic ideas)
reasons and observations become subordinate to faith and emotion
St. Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274)
epitomized scholasticism. he sought to Christianize the works of aristotle and to show that both faith and reason lead to the truth of god’s existence
challenged the world view - showed that it was possible to argue with church dogma
made study of natural work and rational argument more acceptable
William Occam (1285-1349) (nominalist)
denied the connection of the realists that what we experience are but manifestations of abstract principles. instead, he sided with the nominalists who said that so-called abstract principles, or universals, were nothing more than verbal labels that we use to describe classes of experiences.
for Occam, reality is what we experience directly
there is no need to assume a “higher” reality beyond our senses
occam’s razor: explanations are best to the extent they are as simple as possible (parsimonious), and when two theories are in competition, we should prefer the less complex
peter Abelard (1079-1142)
one of the first western philosopher-theologians to emphasize the works of Aristotle
offered a third alternative - conceptualism
only individual things and their particular features exist
categories of things have similarities (concepts)
denies reality of universals as separate entities
realism (similar to Platonic forms)
the belief that abstract universals (essences) exist and that empirical events are only manifestations of those universals
nominalism (similar to Aristotlelian viewpoint)
the belief that so-called universals are nothing more than verbal labels or mental habits that are used to denote classes of experiences
conceptualism
abelard’s proposed solution to the realism-nominalism debate. abelard argued that concepts do not have independent existence (realism), but that, being abstractions, they are more than mere names (nominalism).
the theory that universals can be said to exist, but only as concepts in the mind.
the middle ages (400 - 1400)
the sack of rome by the visigoths marks the beginning of the middle ages, which saw very little, if any, progress made in science, philosophy, and literature
mattes began to improve around 782, when the palatine school was organized.
constantine (272-337)
Roman Emperor whose Edict of Milan in 313 made Christianity a tolerated religion within the Roman Empire. Under Constantine’s leadership, widely diverse Christian writings and beliefs were formalized, thus facilitating the widespread acceptance of Christianity
evidence was provided that Constantine actually had no vision but invented it to inspire his troops
the renaissance (1450 - 1600)
discovery of new lands, rise of humanism
important for the advancement of science
protestant reformation
challenges the authority of the church by martin luther who nailed his 95 theses to the door of the church in wittenburg, Germany
elements of humanism: individualism
emphasis on human potential
elements of humanism: personal religion
reduced role of the church in religion
elements of humanism: intense interest in the past
scholars study original works, exposed to many new ideas
elements of humanism: anti-aristotelianism
aristotle’s authority is questioned
what is martin luther’s emphasis?
luther insisted on an intensely personal religion in which each person is answerable only to God, a religion that disemphasized ritual and church hierarchy
he thought the church had drifted far from the teachings of Jesus and the Bible, which preached the glory of the simple life, devoid of luxury and privilege.
protestantism denied the authority of the pope and insisted that every individual had the right to interpret the bible for himself or herself
Copernicus (1473 - 1543)
Built on theories presented by Ptolemy (2nd century AD), a Greco-Egyptian. The Ptolemaic system included the beliefs that the heavenly bodies, including the earth, were spherical in shape and that the sun, moon, and planets travel around the earth in orbits that are circular and uniform
His published work, De Revolutionibus, successfully argued that the earth revolved around the sun (heliocentric theory). This questioned the traditional place of humankind in the universe (represents a profoundly different worldview
His theory cast the known astrological facts into a simpler, more harmonious mathematical order
Johannes Kepler (1571 - 1630)
First studied to become a Lutheran minister but, unable to accept the entirety of Lutheran doctrine, switched to study math and astronomy
Believed that the true reality was the mathematical harmony that existed beyond the world of appearance
believed in deduction (general to specific)
Discovered that the paths of the planets around the sun were elliptical rather than circular
He observed that the velocities of the planets vary inversely with their distance from the sun
Most important contribution to science was his insistence that all mathematical deductions be verified b empirical observation
Galileo Galilei (1564 -1642)
Like Copernicus and Kepler, Galileo saw his task as explaining the true mathematical reality that existed beyond the world of appearances
Used his modified version of the telescope to discover the mountains of the moon, sunspots, and the fact that the Milky Way is made up of many stars not visible to the naked eye
believed in deduction (general to specific)
For Galileo, discovering a physical law was like discovering a Platonic form. Observation may suggest that a lawful relationship may exist, and an experiment is performed to either confirm or disconfirm the possibility
Once a law is discovered, further experimentation is mot necessary; mathematical deduction is used to precisely describe all possible manifestations of the law
Made sharp distinctions between objective reality (reality that exists independent of anyone’s perception of it) and subjective reality (measure of purely psychological experiences)
Didn’t believe in psychology as a real science because of its attempt to measure secondary qualities
Isaac Newotn (1642 - 1727)
synthesizes galileo, Kepler, and copernicus and invented calculus
predicated his beliefs around deism (god created the earth, but has no impact on its development or events)
viewed the universe as a machine
the material world is based on natural laws (no exceptions and they are absolute)
believed in deduction (general to specific)
Francis Bacon (1561 - 1626)
believed science should only function on observations
no theories, hypotheses, or deductions
his approach to science was called positivism, which was that science should only study what can be directly observed
4 sources of errors:
cave - personal biases
the tribe - human nature/perception
marketplace - meanings of words
theatre - allegiance to a particular point of view
Rene Descartes (1596 - 1650) “i think, therefore I am”
viewed the study of psychology through a strictly mechanistic lens
thoughts all natural events could be described using algebra and geometry (invented analytical geometry)
Innate ideas: ideals placed in our head by God
method of inquiry was introspection:
intuition: when an unbiased, curious mind arrives at a clear idea
deduction: once a valid idea is intuited, several other valid ideas can be reduced by that idea
* this restored the value for purely subjective thinking that Galileo destroyed
believed in intersections: the idea that the mind and body are separate, but work together in mind/body dualism
empiricism
philosophical position that the senses provide the primary data for knowledge - reason is secondary to that
Thomas Hobbes (1588 - 1679) (British empiricism and materialism/monist)
father of British empiricism
humans are physical matter, or matter in motion, forces that work in nature also work on us
everything is matter in motion (physical body = physical motion, mental life = physical motion)
physical monist/materialist
rejected innate ideas and free will (embraced determinism)
hedonic human nature (everything we do is self-serving)
John Locke (1632 - 1704) (dualist and political philosopher)
political philosopher - the voice of enlightenment
sole appropriate government is by authorized of the governed
“Essay concerning human understanding” there is nothing in the mind that was not first in the sense
rejected innate ideas
understanding ourselves is basic to investigation in all fields, including science
thought is non-material in nature (dualist)
simple ideas (a passive response from sensations) to complex ideas (an activity of the mind upon reflection)
what two qualities did John Locke come up with?
primary and secondary qualities
primary quality: create ideas that correspond to actual physical attributes of the object
secondary quality: create ideas that do not correspond to anything in the physical world
george berkeley (1685 - 1753) (theism and pantheism)
rejects physical matter - it exists only when it is perceived
went as far as to cast down all of science by saying that everything was made up of God
sensationalism
mostly french philosophers and scholars
found Descartes’ idea of innate knowledge objectionable
Sensationalism, in epistemology and psychology, a form of Empiricism that limits experience as a source of knowledge to sensation or sense perceptions. Sensationalism is a consequence of the notion of the mind as a tabula rasa, or “clean slate.”
La Mettrie 1748 (sensationalist)
wrote “A man a machine”
humans have a greater intelligence than animals simply because they have larger brains
when he was sick with a fever, he came to believe that the mind and body are more intimately related than Descartes beloved with his dualism
hedonism: humans are motivated to seek pleasure and avoid pain
Condillac 1714 (epistemologist and philosopher)
epistemologist and french philosopher
analogy of the statue
imagine a statue with just a sense of smell (passive mind, accumulate experience and store it in memory)
eventually compare and contrast, which produces abstract ideas
positivism
a philosophical system that holds that every rationally justifiable assertion can be scientifically verified or is capable of logical or mathematical proof, and that therefore rejects metaphysics and theism.
if something exists, it exists in some quantity and can be measured
if it can’t be detected, then it doesn’t exist
comte
positivist - observable knowledge will generate a science
scientism - belief that science can solve all human problems
dualism
One who believes that a person consists of two separate entities: a mind, which accounts for one’s mental experiences and rationality, and a body, which functions according to the same biological and mechanical principles as do the bodies of nonhuman animals.
Baruch Spinoza (1632 - 1677)
often gave up positions for his scholarly integrity
excommunicated
believed god is everywhere and in everything - all nature is God (pantheism: a doctrine which identifies God with the universe, or regards the universe as a manifestation of God)
if God is nature, then nature is lawful
we can study God by studying nature
there is no such thing as free will - we are ignorant of the causes of events, this makes us think we have free will
how did Spinoza feel about emotions and passions?
emotions have a specific referent
passions have no specific referent - can be dangerous and must be controlled through reason
Gottfriend Leibniz (1646 - 1716)
invented calculus at the same time as Newton
tried to find a place somewhere between Descartes extreme dualism and Spinoza’s extreme monism
monads: living, conscious arms make up all things
supreme monad is god
conscious perception comes from a number of unconscious perceptions
law of continuity: there are no gaps in nature, all differences in the natural world are characterized by very small gradations
suggested the threshold of awareness (limen) - proved that just because we aren’t aware of things doesn’t mean they aren’t there
there is no such thing as free will - we are ignorant to the causes of events, which makes us feel like we have free will
the closest we can get to freedom is to understand as many causes as possible (psychological determinism)
psychological parallelism
monads do not interact with one another - they work through preestablished harmony
thomas reid (171 - 1796)
Scottish rationalist
commonsense philosophy - treat things as if they exist and the world exists as it appears
first to differentiate between sensation and perception
faculty psychology interested in individual differences and the field of phrenology
immanuel kant (1724 - 1804)
pure concepts in the mind that act on sensory information
we come equipped with causality, time, space, quantity, and existence categories
agreed with Hume that we can never know the world directly and certainly
phenomenological experience: interaction between sensations and categories of thought
phenomenon: our experience, subjective reality
noumena: true physical reality
how did Kant influence psychology?
defined psychology as introspective analysis of the mind, didn’t think it could be science
defined anthropology as the study of human behavior - how psychology is defined today
many of his ideas regarding innate abilities continue to be discussed
empiricism and rationalism
sense experience, passive mind, hedonism, rejection of nativism, mechanism
rationalism - the world and humans cannot be explained through just sensory information use reason (intuition, analysis, argument, education)
romanticism (emotional self-awareness is the key to bettering yourself) and existentialism
Romanticism is a philosophical movement during the Age of Enlightenment which emphasizes emotional self-awareness as a necessary pre-condition to improving society and bettering the human condition
To be an existing human being means to be free. In contrast with most everything else in the world, a human being is not determined by ‘laws of nature.’ The human being has a unique freedom to determine his or her own behavior.
emotions over reason
intuition over logic
pursuit of a good life over science and technology
behavior stems from basic nature of humans
Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712 - 1778) (father of romanticism)
father of romanticism
natural impulses are the best guide for behavior - people can and should use their own natural impulses as a guide to good living
science, religion, reason corrupt humans
the general will: According to Rousseau, the innate tendency to live harmoniously with one’s fellow humans.
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (romanticism)
humans are torn by the stressed of opposing forces (love and hate, life and death, good and evil)
we should live passionately and strive for personal growth
Soren Kierkegaard (1813 - 1855) (romanticism)
emotional, non-traditional love of God
personal religion
emphasized subjectivity is truth, not objectivity
Friedrich Nietzsche (1844 - 1900) (romanticism)
two basic personality forces: dionysian (irrational side) and Apollonian (rational side)
the best life reflects a balance of these two forces
God is dead - science has left us without morality or purpose
will to power - meaning, knowledge must be discovered from within ourselves, exerting willful mastery over our destiny
we should attempt to become more than we are
supermen or higher men
they are the most successful at mastering their destiny
form ideal blend between Apollonian and Dionysian personality forms
best suited to lead
descartes as a psychologist
Mind/Body Dualism
Mind: Free will, consciousness, thought
Body: Mechanistic, spatial, a machine
Interaction between body and mind
Pineal gland as the site of interaction
But how? — he never really answered that
Wrestle with relation between mind and body
Reflexes - Something external excites one of the senses, Excites nerves, transmits excitation to brain - Brain “reflects” excitation to muscles, causing movement
monism
opposite of dualism
a theory or doctrine that denies the existence of a distinction or duality in some sphere, such as that between matter and mind, or God and the world.
materialism (type of monism)
literally referring to “matter”
Materialism is a form of philosophical monism which holds that matter is the fundamental substance in nature, and that all things, including mental aspects and consciousness, are results of matter interacting.
french sensationalism
rejected descartes’ dualism and rationalism
rejected British armchair introspection
Human behavior explained by mechanical
laws; humans as machines – materialism (humans are matter in motion just like everything else in the universe)
no ideas are innate - all knowledge comes through experience
the doctrine that human knowledge is confined to or founded on the realities or appearances presented to the senses.
theism
belief in the existence of a god or gods, especially belief in one god as creator of the universe, intervening in it and sustaining a personal relation to his creatures.
what was liebniz’s contribution?
suggested an active creative mind
opened the door to psychology as a science
skepticism
Pyhrro - a lot in common with the Sophists
the theory that certain knowledge is impossible
no argument is wrong or right, and humans cannot arrive at any kind of certain knowledge
what did the British empiricists and the French sensationalists have in common?
The British empiricists and the French sensationalists had in common the belief that all knowledge comes from experience; that is, that there are no innate ideas. All knowledge, they said, even moral knowledge, was derived from experience. If the denial of innate moral principles did not place the empiricists and the sensationalists in direct opposition to religion, it certainly placed them in direct opposition to religious dogma.
romanticism
Some philosophers began to argue that humans consist of more than an intellect and ideas derived from experience. Humans, they said, also possess a wide variety of emotions, intuitions, and instincts. Those philosophers emphasizing the importance of these irrational components of human nature were called romantics. They believed that rational thought had often led humans astray in their search for valid information and that empiricism reduced people to unfeeling machines. According to the romantics, the best way to find out what humans are really like is to study the total person, not just his or her rational powers or empirically determined ideas.
existentialism
The philosophy that examines the meaning in life and stresses the freedom that humans have to choose their own destiny. Like romanticism, existentialism stresses subjective experience and the uniqueness of each individual.
