Exam 1-Oct. 3 Flashcards
Goal
disciplined search for knowledge
Inductive Reasoning
Describe and order phenomena in systematic way
- Gather data
- Organize observations into generalizations
Deductive Reasoning
Hypothesis testing: (prediction)
Organic Evolution
change in gene frequency in population over time
Verifiable fact- changes are measurable
Macro-evolution (organic)
speciation events, long term, multigenerational (evolution/extinction
Micro-evolution (organic)
small-scale changes over a few generations
population
interbreeding group of individuals that are reproductively isolated from other interbreeding groups
Hardy-Weinburg model of Genetic Equilibrium
- Predicts population’s gene frequency at genetic equilibrium
- No evolution occurs at equilibrium
- Deviations=signs of evolution
Observable Evidence of Evoution
1) All life is related.
a) All pass genetic info. in form of DNA.
b) All build proteins from the same set of amino acids.
c) Shared chemical-detail genes (metabolic pathways)
2) Organisms for natural relationships
3) Species do not have clear boundaries.
4) Organisms display vestigial structures.
5) Fossils form natural relationships with living species.
6) Extinct species don’t reappear in later strata/
Anthropology
The entire scope of the human experience
culture
the strategy by which people adapt to natural and social environments
enculturation
the process by which we learn language and beliefs of communal society
adaptation
functional response to environment resulting from natural selection
Enlightenment
Philosophical movement in Europe, assumed knowable oder to natural world, emphasized value of reason
ethnographies
descriptive studies of human societies (comparisons), particularly Non-Western
urban anthropology
deals with cities, deals with relationships among ethnic groups, homelessness, health care, immigrant tradition
transcription
creating mRNA (the guy that transfers genetic information transcribed from DNA to a ribosome
translation
going from bases to amino acids
Mitosis
Start with__?
End with___?
-Start with 46 single stranded chromosomes. Through replication get 46 double stranded chrom.
Then the cell splits and seperates, which each strand compposed of one DNA molecule
-End up with 2 cells with 46 single stranded chromosomes.
Meiosis
- Start with 46 single stranded
- Replicate to 46 double stranded
- Crossing over- switching of genes
- Now have two cells with 23 double stranded chromosomes
- The two cells divide, resulting in four cells with 23 single stranded chromosomes.
Darwin
Alred Wallace
1809-1882
1823-1913
Natural selection
1) Variation in population is present.
2) In any naturally occurring pop, some variants survive better.
3) These variants have higher reprod. success
Gene flow
Exchange of genes between populations due to interbreeding= INCREASE in genetic variation WITHIN populations, but DECREASE in variation BETWEEN populations
(microevolution)
Genetic drift
- change in frequency of allele
- Due to random sampling (when some individuals leave behind more descendants than other)
- Affects change through random events
- Decreases variation within a population (When pop. is small)
Founder’s effect
Small group of ‘founders’ leaves parent group to form new colony. Everyone is descended from founders.
Cenozoic Era
- Neogene (23- 2.5 mya)
a) Holocene (11 kya- present) (homo genus)- farming starts
b) Pleistocene- Lucy (2 mya-11 kya)
c) Pliocene (5- 2 mya) (hominin- ape men)
d) Miocene (23-5 mya) (hominin) - Paleogene (monkeys) (66- 23 mya)
a) Oligocene (35-23 mya)
b) Eocene (56-34 mya)- identify primates
c) Paleocene (65-56 mya)
Mesozoic Era
- Dinosaurs
- Cretaceous (146-65 mya)- asteroid
- Jurassic (208-146 mya)
- Triassic (245-208 mya)- mammals first evolved (primates)
Primates
Appear in fossil record near end of Cretaceous Period (65 mya)
Early Eocene (Who emerged, what happened?)
- 50 mya
- Prosimians (lemurs/lorises) appear in fossil record of Asia, Europe, North America synchronously
- Emergence of perissodactyles and artiodactyles (animals with hooves)
- Warming event (at Paleocene/Eocene boundary)- may be possible by extension of tropical climates
Primates of Early Eocene
- Adapids: Allied with modern strepsirrhines (lemurs and lorises); wet noses
- Omomyids: Allied with modern haplorrhines (tarsiers and anthropoids-OW Monkeys and apes, including humans)
Stereoscopic vision
- Eyes face forward.
- Helps with moving around forest/prey capture
- Post-orbital bars- where cheek bone meets frontal bone/cup
Middle Ages
- Feudal, hierarchal society, Christianity
- Arab & Indian already developed planetary
- Greater awareness of biological diversity
- 1514 Copernicus discovered earth not center
John Ray
- Came up with concept of species (plants/animals mate individually)
- Coined ‘genus’
genus
species which share similarities
Carolus Linnaeus
-Binomial nomenclature-> taxonomy
Cuvier
- Introduced ‘extinction’
- Introduced ‘catastrophism’- destroy and restock
Malthus
-Came up with idea of population growth/competition for food and water
Lyell
- Responsible for uniformitarianism
- Emphasized enormity of geologic time depth
Uniformitarianism
Geological processes observed in present are same as past
Individuals
Don’t change genetically, populations do
Biological continuity
Organisms are related through common ancestry, some traits in species not present in others
regulatory proteins
- enter cell’s nucleus and attach to DNA
- make proteins to switch genes on and off
Sequence of DNA determines___.
the order of amino acids
homeobox genes
Type of regulatory genes which direct segmentation of embryonic changes= physical differences among species
autosomes
- Contain genetic info that governs all the physical characteristics except sex determination
- Occur in pairs
- Human somatic cells have 22 pairs- abnormal number is fatal
The Principle of Segregation
genes occur in pairs because chrom. occur in pairs
Locus
position on chromosome where given gene occurs
Polygenic inheritance
traits are discrete/discontinuous (phenotypic traits have distinct, defined categories)
Mitochondria
Converts energy derived from the breakdown of nutrients to a form cells can use
mitochondrial DNA
- DNA found in mitochondrion inherited only by mother’s eggs
- Subject to mutation
allele frequency
- Percentage of all the alleles at a locus accounted for by one specific allele
- Indicate genetic makeup of population
Genetic bottleneck
- Reduction in size of population due to environmental events
- Loss of genetic diversity
- Tay-Sachs, PKU, cystic fibrosis
directional change
nonrandom change in allele frequencies (frequencies consistently increase or decrease)
Heterodonts
- Have more than 1 single tooth morphology
- Dental formula- 2-1-2-3
- Incisors were larger than molars
- Flat molars-large surface area to eat seeds and nuts
temporalis muscle
at temple, vertical chaving
masseter muscle
lateral chewing
sagittal crest
muscle attachment site for temporalis (in apes)
temporal line
attach temporalis muscle to skull
temporal fossa
hole for temporalis muscle; bigger the hole/crest, bigger the muscle
supraorbital torus
ridge at eyebrows
nuchal crest
where neck muscles attack
sexual dimorphism
differences in morphology (the different forms sexes are taking on)
diastema
space between teeth where opposite canine will fit
anthropoids
“advanced” “higher” primates
- platyrrihines: New World monkeys, flat nose
- catarrines: Old World monkeys, noses out more, apes, hominins
obligative bipeds
-bipedals all the times
foramen magnum
- Hole for spinal chord in skull
- differs in chimps and humans
East Africa
- Rift Valley (two of earth’s tectonic plates moved apart for 20 million years), only place preserved well
- Forested areas instead of erosional badlands (7-5 mya)
- Water aided in sedimentation around trees, preserving bones
- Volcanic rock rich in K
- Older site
East Africa (peeps down there)
- *Ardipithecus (Ethiopia)
a) apelike
b) small brain
c) large face
d) curved fingers - *Orrorin (Kenya)
- *Sahelantrhopus (Chad)
S. Africa
- limestone corpses
- Breccia
- Trees served as food & shelter
- Hominins found caves where they kept remains of the hunted
- Younger site
- relative dating
Breccia
rock composed of preserved ancient bones
Direct dating
Dating the actual fossil, artifact, or feature
Indirect dating
Date remains by association with already dated remains
Relative determination
Evaluate piece of data relative to another piece
absolute (chronometric) determination
- Places age of material on absolute time scale
- Usually assign age in years before present
- Expressed in terms of time span/range
radioisotopic dating
- absolute determination
- Uses radioactive decay (transformation of unstable radioactive isotopes into stable elements)
- Original amount of radioactive isotope at onset of decay must be known
- We calculate the sum of the radioactive material now present and the isotope into which radioactive one is decaying
- Rate of radioactive decay must be known (expressed in half lives)
radio-potassium dating
- absolute determination
- Isotope used: Potassium-40 -> Disintegration into Argon->40 (half life: 1.25 billion years)
- Rock mineral is rich in K
- Restricted to volcanic areas because requires high temperatures to set daughter isotopic ratio to zero
Hylobates (classification)
lesser apes (no fossil record)
Hominidae and Ponginae (classification)
- Great apes (chimps, gorillas, humans, orang.)
- most lived during miocene era
- Asia-orangutans
- Africa-us!!
Proconsul
-early ape (23-25 mya)
-Frugivorous teeth adapted for diet of fruit
-Generalized arboreal quadruped (live on trees)
-Deep, narrow ribcage
-long, lower back
-legs and arms same length
-walk on palms
-no tail (emphasis on deliberate movement)- CLAMBERING
(allowed for restructuring of pelvis-BE MORE UPRIGHT)
-Selection for longer forearms & phalanges which means more postures!
Pierolapithecus catalaunicas
-Barcelona (~3 mya)
-Primitive features: small hands, straight fingers
(quadroped on trees)
-great ape features: reduced muzzle, wide & narrow ribcage, wide shoulder blades (upright pos.), mobile wrist joints= vertical climbing
Khoratphithecus
- (13.5-7 mya) Late Miocene
- Khorat, Thailand
- Teeth/mandible match pongo
Ex. Chororapithecus abyssinius
^fossils 10 mill. years older than predicted
Middle Awash (Ethiopia)
- hominin
- Oldowan tool complex
- Fossils from ~36 people found, derived from radioactive deposits dates ~4.4 mya
- Houses fossil named Ardipithecus ramidus
a) Blunt canines= no canine displays, females like less aggressive
Hominin characteristics (Both Chimp-like and distinctly human)
Like Humans:
- bipedalism
- position of foramen magnum (where spinal chord meets brain) different
- foot phalanges
- partial skeleton & pelvis
Like chimps:
- large canine teeth
- baby teeth like chimp. in morphology
- thin tooth enamel
Vested Provisioning (Breakthrough Adaptations- Hominin)
Bipedality, then:
1) Loss of sharp canines
2) Walk upright, can carry things
3) More social adhesion & pair bonding
4) Ovulatory crypsis- hidden ovulation
Ardi
(Hominin)
- Female skeleton
- Bipedalism (upright) and feminized male canines
- Same brain size as chimp.
- Apelike lower pelvis=climb
Biostratigraphy
- Dating rocks by dating fossils contained within them
- Ideal for:
a) wide geographic range
b) locations that can be dated absolutely
c) species with rapidly evolving lineage
Hominin (which genera this includes)
- Terminal Miocene
- Ardipithecus
- Orrorin
- Sahelanthropus
- Had flattened preolars
- bipedalism
- large faces
- small brains
Ape Men
- Australopithecus afarensis (3.6-3.0 mya)-Lucy
- Australopithecus (4.2-3.9 mya)
??Terminal Miocene/Early Pliocine Hominins (7.0-4.4 mya)
Megadontia
big cheekteeth
- adaptation to fibrous diet
- first found in A. anamensis
- then found in robust australopithecus
a) premolars become more ‘molarized’ - -Australopithecus boisei (E. Africa)
- -Australopithecus robustus (S. Africa)
What morophological changes did Megadontia produce?
1) Large sagittal crest
2) Forward-projecting jaw (prognathism)
3) Cheekbones placed forward
4) Massive mandible
5) Thick enamel
^due to change in diet
What happened 3.0 to 2.5 mya?
- Cooling down
- Expansion of savannah in Africa, loss of preferred hominin habitats and foods
- Australopithecus ate roots and tubes
- Robust australopithecus used bone tools for digging in ground for food
How are A. robustus and A. boisei related
- Common descendant from recent ancestor (platogenesis)
- Monophylum theory: they both evolved from A. aethiopicus (<no evidence)
- Similar adaptive responses morphologically
How did homo genus and robust austral. deal with change in environment (3.0 to 2.5 mya)?
- Robust australopithecus: SOMATICALLY- evolving features
- Homo genus: EXTRASOMATICALLY- stone/cutting tools, eating MEAT
homoplasy
- Characteristic shared by set of species but not present in common ancestor
- Same environmental pressures, so they adapted in the same way
Expensive Tissue Hypothesis
-Hominin brains accounted for 2% body mass, however demands 16-20% of energy and oxygen needed every day
=dramatic reduction in GI gut size
Homo
- Switch to omnivorous diet (~2.5 mya)
- Elongated legs- better for hunting
- Cut marks in fossils
- Hammerstone marks- remove blood marrow
Earliest Stone Tools (Oldowan Industrial Complex)
- Found in E. Asia- ‘Pebble/Copper’ Stone tool industry
- Found in Gona
- Cores: inside of rock
- Hammerstones: used to strike cores
- Flakes: produced from hammerstone percussion
Why were stone tools awesome for the Homo?
They could leave Africa! ~1.7 mya
Homo
1) H. Habilis (~1.8 mya)
2) H. Rudolfensis(~1.8 mya)
-Had larger brain size than Austral.
^^Last hominins restricted to Africa
….one of these two gave rise to Homo ergaster
3) H. heidelbergensis (~1 mya)l from Africa
Homo ergaster
- Widespread in Africa
- Significantly larger brain than H. habilis & rudolfensis
- Large, modern body
- FIRST HOMININ to leave Africa ~1.7 mya
Dmanisi
- Site of ruined medieval fortress
- Excavation revealed fossils disturbed by medieval peeps
- H. ergaster found here- skeleton, skull & Oldowan stone tools
Acheulean Industry
- 1.6 to 1.4 mya in Africa and Europe
- Used bifacial tools flaked on both sides
- Increase in efficient use of raw materials compared to Oldowan
- Simple tools made for specific tasks
Movius Line
-Marks eastern limit of Acheulean Industrial Tradition
Homo sapiens
- Gave rise in Africa
- We came from African ancestor that replaced Neanderthals and H. erectus
hominoid
humans, great apes, and lesser apes
hominid
humans & great apes
hominin
humans
i) non-sectorial premolar
ii) bipedalism
Gracile Australopithecus
(earlier one)
- thinner bones
- A. afarensis (3.6-3 mya)- E. Africa “Lucy”
- A. africanis (3-2 mya)- S. Africa “Tong Child”
Robust Australopithecus (aka Paranthropus)
(later one)
- A. aethiopius (2.7-2.3 mya)- Ethiopia, black bone
- A. boisei (2.3- 1.3 mya)- E. Africa, “Nutcracker man”
i) Dished face, flat teeth - A. robustus (1.8- 1 mya)- S. Africa
zygomatic arch
attachment site for massetter (chewing) muscle
postorbital constriction
pinching in of brain at eye sockets
Innominate bone
hip bone
Homo neanderthalensis
- 200k to 28kya
- primarily in Europe.. SW and Central Asia
- ‘Old Man’- La Chapelle-aux-saints- shows us how humanlike they were (caretaking)
- brow ridge
- occipital bun=big brains
- big nose
- wide ribcage, short limbs
- increasing surface area
- ritual burial
- ornamentation
Mousterian
- composite tools
- making tool into handle.. Shows requires thought
Platyrrhines
- anthropoids
- new world monkeys
Catarrhines
- old world monkeys
- apes
- projecting noses
Miocene epoch
- 5-5.2 mya
- apes and monkeys
- more amount of monkeys
Pliocene epoch
- 2-2.6 Mya
- Ice Age, temp. dropped
- hominins in Africa, Asia, and Europe
a) Homo heidelbergensis
- ^descendants of homo erectus
Pleistocene epoch
- 2.6-12 kya
- beginning of homo
- H. habilis emerged
Holocene epoch
- 12 kya to present
- radiocarbon dating
- Kennewick man (human)
Aridification
‘Drying’
Monophyllum theory
-States that A. robustus and A. Boisei have one common ancestor which also has all their traits
New World Monkeys
- Central/South America
- plattyrhines
Old World Monkeys
- Native to Africa and Asia
- catarrhine
strepsirrhines
- lemurs and lorises
- wet nose
haplorrhines
- tarsiers and anthropoids (OW monkeys and apes-including humans)
- dry nose
Characteristics of Primates of Early Eocene
- Primates possess generalized/unspecialized skeletons compared to other animals (who have clavicles/ 5 digits)
- Stereoscopic vision
- Large brain size relative to body size
- Nails rather than claws for tool making
- Opposable thumb
- Mobile wrist, ankle, shoulder joints
- Small litters
a) Slower growth and maturation
b) Flexible, learned behavior (not instinct)
c) Sociality- with adult males in group
