Archaeology (TB) Flashcards
Archaeological record
Material remains of the past and their physical context
Anthropological archaeology
Using archaeology to understand the origins and diversity of modern humans
artifacts
Materials made or modified for use by hominins. The earliest tend to be made of stone or bone.
Material culture
Physical manifestations of human activities. For example, tools, art, and structures. Make up the majority of archaeological evidence
Sites
Locations of human activity, often associated with artifacts and features
antiquarian
- 14th to 19th century
- relating to an interest of objects and texts of the past
stratigraphic
relates to depositional levels/strata
theory
a statement that hasn’t been falsified, allow scientists to make predicts of unobserved phenomenon
ethnocentrism
viewing others’ cultures from a biased perspective of one’s own culture
regional continuity model
- Local populations in Europe, Asia, and Africa continued their evolutionary development from Middle Pleistocene forms to modern human forms today
1) earliest H. sapiens originated in Africa
2) Gene flow happened during Pleistocene
replacement model
-All Homo evolved in Africa and later dispersed to other parts of world
1) complete replacement: (not accurate) Modern-looking populations arose in Africa, migrated to replace populations in E. Asia.
BUT: Homo sapiens resulted from biological speciation event, couldn’t have interbred w/ non-African populations
ACCURATE MODEL:
-There was gene flow between h. Sapiens and other populations
Klaises Mountain River
- 120,000-80,000 ya
- more modern human fossils found here
Middle Awash
-Ardipithecus and Australopithecus found here
-‘Herto’ (Ethiopia) remains
-radiometric dating ~160,000 to 154,000 ya
-‘Homo sapiens idaltu’ (large cranial vault, large brow ridge)
^extremely well-preserved
Upper Cave at Zhoukoudian
- 27,000 years ago
- Mongolian Ordos skull
Tianyuan Cave
- 40,000 years ago (radiocarbon dating)
- Indicate African origin of modern humans
- Evidence of interbreeding in China
- Best-dated early modern H. Sapiens from China
Niah Cave
- -45,000 years ago
- At Borneo
- Niah skull found is modern (some people from Indonesia may have been first to colonize Australia)
Australia
-inhabited 55,000 ya (at Sahul)
-Homo sapiens found at Lake Mungo
-30-25,000 ya (radiocarbon dating)
-But Kow Swamp fossils prove to look to antique
=Australians are descendants from single migration
Central Europe
- 35,000
- fossils of H. sapiens found at Oase Cave, Romania
- Mladec: H. sapiens found from 31,000 ya
Western Europe
a) Cro-Magnon site (28,000 ya): rock-shelter at France
- associated with Aurignacian tool assembly
- Evidence between interbreeding with Neanderthals and modern humans
b) Abrigo de Lagar Velho, Portugal~24,500 ya
Aurignacian tool assembly
Upper Paleolithic stone tool industry in Europe from around 40,000 ya
-Blades made from cores and flakes
Homo floresiensis
- How did they get to Flores?
- Liang Bua Cave, Flores Cave, Indonesia
- Natural selection favored small body size in isolated population, or disease?
- Tools dating back to 1 mya
- Resemble H. erectus
Southwest Asia and Europe
~47,000 ya
- Earliest evidence of exploitation of birds and fish for hunting by Upper Paleolithic hunters
- Mid and Upper Paleolithic hunting: what’s seasonally available
tundra
- Treeless plains
- Permafrost-> growth of grasses and mosses
- Lots of herbivorous animals
Upper Paleolithic vs Middle Paleolithic
Upper:
- Settlements larger and used longer
- Encampments of 25-50 people
- Burials include tools, ornaments-> indicative of status?
- Age of technological innovation: invented tools, used bone, ivory and antler (indirect percussion, pressure flaking, spear throwing)
- Found personal ornaments and clothing (to express status and gender roles)
- figurines
Middle:
-wooden spears
Places with Decorated Corpses
- Krems-Wachtberg, Austria (27,000 ya)- newborns covered in beads and ocher
- Sungir site near Moscow (24,000 ya)- corpses in beaded clothing, spears, ivory engravings, jewelry
The 5 Upper Paleolithic industries
1) Chatelperronian
2) Aurignacian
3) Gravettian
4) Solutrean
5) Magdalenian
- use blade technology in making stone tools
indirect percussion
driving off blades and flakes from a core using a bone/antler to press off flake
blade technology
-Tools are made up of blades struck from prepared cores
burin
-Made by snapping off bits of blade to create sharp end
pressure flaking
-Produces flakes by pressing bone against core (Solutrean)
Upper Paleolithic Art
- 35,000-10,000 ya
- Found in Siberia, Africa, and Australia
- burin (blade) engraved bone
- Figurines (busty women)- fired clay (Dolni Vestonice)~26kya
- Animal Cave Art (Aurignacian~34kya)
Upper Paleolithic Material Culture
- Clothing expressed the status of Upper Paleolithic huntergatherers, societal roles
- cave paintings of animals
Upper Paleolithic Africa (findings at Pinnacle Point)
- Middle Paleolithic
- Projectile weaponry began here 100-50,000 ya to broaden human diet
- Evidence of complex cognition near Blombos Cave: used red ochre (~160,000 ya) for making ornaments, exploitation of shellfish (150,000 ya), bladelets (~71,000 ya), microliths, brown mussels
The Post-Ice Age World?
- Glaciers become small
- sea levels rise
- plant/animal communities migrate
What are the two theories of how people entered into the New World?
1) Bering land bridge that connected Asia to NA (late Pleistocene)
2) Pacific Coastal Route
Bering Land Bridge (Hypothesis)
- Sea level was lowered due to glaciers, so 1,300 miles available
- Beringia had dry grasslands, trees
- Steppes/tundras-supported grazing animals=food
- Rhino/mammoth ivory used as tools
‘ice-free corridor’ hypothesis
-Laurentide and Cordilleran glaciers finally separate (13,000 years ago) for form ice-free corridor
-Explains entry of Clovis and earliest humans into America
(Clovis were not earliest in NA)
Pacific Coastal Route
-Climatic conditions favorable ~17,000 years ago
-People began moving along Pacific coast
-Forests had access to mammals, birds
-Evidence people could have used boats
Problems with the theory
a) We have little arch. evidence of marine-adapted human pops. along coast of Asia.
Meadowcroft Rock Shelter
- Near Pennsylvania
- 19,000-14,000 ya
- stone tools and remains of Clovis assemblage found (assemblage- 15-13,000 ya)
Cactus Hill
- Southern Virginia
- stone cores, flakes found under Paleo-Indian layers
Monte Verde
- 14,500 years old
- Remnants of wooden foundations of rectangular huts, building of stone tools with animal bones
- Indicate plants had major subsistence role
fluted point
- Paleo-Indians’ projectile with bifacial point
- used 13,300-12,800 years ago
Paleo-Indians
- hunted megafauna, ate meat, fish, nuts, tuberous roots
- non-sedentary hunter-gatherers
- lived in Pleistocene
- Knives, scrapers, projectile points found along with bones
- isotopic analysis -> tooth wear
- responsible for the extinction of many animals
- Burial found of 18 year old
Folsom
- New Paleo-Indian weapon
- fluted projectile points to hunt bison
- Great Plains: plano
Younger Dryas
- 13,500 to 11,500 ya (Holocene)
- Cooling period
- Until 8-6 kya- warmer weather
Changes after Younger Dryas (Late Pleistocene)
- Increased July temp. by 20 degrees
- Great lakes form from glaciers
Archaic Period (Old World)
- In Europe called ‘Mesolith’
- In Asia called ‘Epipaleolithic’
- There was a shift to hunting smaller animals
a) Wanted to eat more diverse food
b) Wood replaced bones
c) Fish caught in nets
foragers
- H.G.’s who move according to season and food availability
- Moved a lot
collectors
- H.G.’s who ate wide range of locally available plant/animal food
- sedentary
- Evidence of storage techniques
Archaic Hunter Gatherers
- Exploited marine environment with spear thrower
- Evidence of more sociopolitical organization, religious ceremonies, and economic interdependence near end of period
Great Basin (W. North America)
- Between R. Mountains and Sierra Nevada
- Hunting weapons found
- Chumash people ate according to adjustments in coastal and terrestrial resources
- sedentary society
sedentary
-living in a single location for most of the year
Archaic Culture (E. North America)
- general warming period resulted in deciduous forests
- nuts and small mammals
- canoes
- had cemeteries and grave goods-sedentary society
- planned mound building
- People lived in kin-based coastal communities
- feasting
Starr Carr
- 10,500 years ago
- During Mesolithic Period in Northern Europe
- at England
- Foraging economy
- stone axes, spear points with microliths (small blades)
- Domesticated dogs
- floral/faunal evidence
- house construction
Argus Bank
- 8,000 ya
- Denmark
- European Mesolithic
- Fish, animal, nuts fruits main staples, shellfish (protein, kept people around)
- Underwater site
Epipaleolithic Period
- Warmer
- More permanent settlements
- H.G.’s relied on hunting and fishing (wild plants/wild animals)
Ohallo II
- 23,000 ya
- A Kebaran site: (consisted of late Pleistocene hunter gatherers of East Mediterranean) in Israel
- Near Sea of Calilee
- Circular huts with specific activity areas
- Several huts with grass bedding, hearths intact
- Wild cereals and seeds found by starch grain analysis
- Gazelles and deer
- Collector H.G.’s
- 90,000 plant remains
transhumance
seasonal migration from one resource zone to another
-Kebaran sites
The Natufian Culture
- 12-10,000 ya, Near East
- Sedentary H.G.’s, collectors of food
- diverse foods (cereal grasses, legumes, gazelles)
- Have found grinding stones and human cavities
- Hilazon Tachtit Cave, Israel
- Burial of Shaman (12 kya)
craft specialization
An economic system where some people don’t engage in food production, but produce other goods and services
Neolithic Revolution
- ‘New Stone Age’
- Establishment of farming in Europe, Africa, Asia
- Neolithic people become more sedentary
- Transition of H.G. to farmer
- Caused by intensive exploitation of wild resources
Food Production: Oases theory
-There was a severe drought at the end of the Pleistocene
-This led people to flee to oases
-This led to population pressure- fewer resources for large population
=more sedentary communities in Near East
horticulture
Farming method in which hand tools are used
Binford’s ‘Packing Model’
- As the climate became decent, people inhabited Eurasia
- Their foraging lead to increased competition for resources and more varied diet
- Some resources proved to be more reliable/efficient, so they lived over there and thrived (in the marginal zones) and domesticated animals.
Braidwood’s ‘nuclear zone’ hypothesis
- Claimed research didn’t find evidence to support oasis theory. Plants/animals weren’t around oases.
- People are drawn to naturally abundant areas
- Domes. and agric. happened ‘when culture was ready’
- Culture allows for more complex societies
Hodder hypothesis
- Emergence of domes. and agric. were ‘transformation of nature into culture’
- Social and natural pressures brought about change
rachis
connector linking seed to primary stalk
-responsible for seed dispersal
cultigen
a plant that is entirely dependent on humans to grow, domesticate
Domesticated animals in Asia, Europe, and Africa
sheep, goats, pigs, cattle, horses
culture
- means of adaptation to environment
- transfer of meaning to symbols
Types of Sites
1) Temporary Occupations
2) Cave Sites
3) Middens (unintentional accumulation of garbage)
Hypotheses Testing
- If hypothesis is true, we expect to see process of deducing facts
- Hypotheses are never proven
- Keep only ones that can’t be disproved
- Either supported or rejected by data
- Hypotheses supported over time become a theory
Goals of Archaeological Research
- Describe and reconstruct cultural history
- environment
- demography
- technology
- ideology
- economy
- subsistence
- economy
- trade
- organization
Arch. Research Methods
1) Excavation
2) Survey
3) Lab techniques
Oldest H. Sapiens Found
- Omo, Ethiopia~195,000 ya
- Herto, Ethiopia~165-154,000 ya (best preserved cranium/ homo sapiens idaltu
H. Sapiens in Near East
(Moving out of Africa)
- Skhul Cave, Mount Carme, Israel
- Qafzeh Cave, Israel~120-92,000 ya
Earliest H. Sapiens found with Mousterian-type tools
- Zhoukoudian, China~25kya
- Tianyuan Cave, China~40 kya
- Niah Cave, Borneo, Indonesia~45 kya
- Neanderthals 130-28,000 ya
Denisovans
- 50-30,000 ya
- Denisova Cave, Siberia
- DNA found from tooth/finger bone
- Genetic data points to new hominid species
Period associated with Becoming ‘Behaviorally Modern Humans’
The ‘Upper Paleolithic Revolution’