Exam 1 Material Flashcards
The Middle Ages
- A diverse period that stretched nearly 1000 years, from the end of the 5th century to the beginning/middle of the 15th
- The “High Middle Ages”: 1000 C.E.-1300 C.E.
- The “Late Middle Ages”: 1300 C.E.-1450 C.E
- Watershed moment: Arrival of the bubonic plague (reached its height in 1348)
Traditional Social Structure of the Middle Ages
Those who fought
Those who prayed
Those who worked
Those who fought
- Landed Nobility/Knights
- divided between Higher Nobility and Lower Nobility
Those who prayed
- Clergy
- divided between the “Regular Clergy” and the “Secular Clergy”
- in the late 1300s in England, clergy equaled 1.5% of the population so that there was one cleric to every 70 people
Those who worked
- Peasantry and Artisans
- often worked on manors according to a reciprocal relationship between landlord and peasant
- peasants worked the land of a lord, but then owed him part of their crops and services in return
- restrictive but also stable life
- church as a religious and social experience
Higher Nobility
long been part of the hereditary nobility
Lower Nobility
- minor landlords, minor knights, some merchants, and wealthy farmers who had climbed the social ladder in order to be able to purchase land
- did not engage in labor; others worked for them
- were expected to fight
Regular Clergy
- members of monastic orders
- preached and taught in monastic schools
Secular Clergy
- high church officials, urban priests, cathedral canons, court clerks, and poor parish priests
- higher clergy led a privileged life (tithes, land, prestige)
- many would have a second job
- yet, took vows of poverty
Three-field system
One field planted with wheat
Second with barley
Third left fallow to rest
- Leads to population growth, growth of cities and towns, and an emerging (increasingly wealthy) merchant class.
- Creates animosity between the old landed elite and the new merchant class.
- Development of guilds: working union for merchants
12th Century Renaissance
- intellectual flourishing
- Translations of the Ancient Greeks brought over from the Byzantine and Islamic Worlds
- as these ideas spread, it leads to the development of the University System
- First University: Bologna (1158)
- became a prime university for law
- served as a model for other universities in southern Europe
-The universities developed a liberal arts system
The Black Death
- starts around 1346 and does not die out until 1356
- starts in Asia and moves west and up Europe
- carried by rats by ship into port cities
- entered Italy in Genoa
- killed about half of Europe’s population
- several waves of the plague
- affected the economy
- stopped society in its tracks
Three ways people could be affected by the plague
bubonic- huge welts on the body
pneumonic- primarily attacked the lungs
septicemic- attacked the blood (less likely)
Contributions to the Emergence of the Renaissance
- Questioning of the Black Death - rethinking one’s relationship to God and to the world in this life, not just in the next
- growth of towns, cities, merchant communities -> educated urban populations
Renaissance
= Period of Rebirth
Why did the Renaissance begin in Italy?
- urbanized culture
- educated elite; the development of the university system
- trading crossroads between ottoman empire and European cities
- center of the Old Roman Empire; the ruins inspired people to think
Renaissance Humanism
- renewed interest in the classics of Ancient Greeks and Ancient Rome
- optimistic view of human nature and the capabilities of the human person
- The Renaissance was NOT a secular period
- religion continued to play a role
- thinkers aimed to figure out how the ideas of the past and their christian faith fit together
- the beauty of the human person
- wanted to improve life in a variety of ways
Francesco Petrarch
- the father of humanism
- born in Italy
- Study of the Latin Language
- “Conversing” with Cicero
- realizes that the past of Cicero can be applied to the modern world today to help people become more civil citizens
- Changed the way we look at historical time and the historical past.
- Three Ages of History: classical age, dark ages, his current age
Lorenzo Valla
- Textual Criticism
- Latin expert
- 1440, Elegances of the Latin Language
-Declamation on the Forged
Donation on Constantine.
-Language as a product of its time.
Art in the Middle Ages
- used to teach
- had religious aspects
- elaborate and beautiful
- exquisite materials
- artist as a manual laborer
Art in the Renaissance Period
- inspired by classical Greece and Rome
- Realistic
- Emphasized the capabilities of man and beauty of the human form
- Artist as a divine genius
- new methods
- chiaroscuro- the use of light and darkness
- contrappasto- the shifting of the weight
- Showcased the glory of Jesus and other religious figures
- types of materials and colors used to show meaning
- emphasis on this life
- depicting life and life forms more realistically
Invention of the printing press
- circa 1450
- Guttenberg, Fust, and Scheffer invented the printing press with moveable type in Mainz Germany
- over the next 20 years, the printing press spread throughout the German states and Italy
- By 1500, 6 million books and 40,000 editions circulating
Elementary/primary schools
- basic literacy skills, religion, basic life skills like sowing and knitting (esp for girls)
- catechism and rote learning
- rote learning = memorizing
Post-elementrary/Grammar school
- girls are largely excluded
- really start to learn latin
- reading Cicero, Virgil, …
Independent Schools
- many people received education this way
- a tutor or mentor that your parents paid for
- depends on social status; must have money
- families would invest in boys
- different types
Broad impacts of the printing press
- greater standardization of texts
- better organization and preservation of texts
- inclusions of both texts and images
- led to the expansion of broader moments such as the Renaissance, the Protestant Reformation (Martin Luther), and the Scientific Revolution (Galileo), and many more
Books before the printing press
- very time consuming and incredibly resource intensive
- made with vellum or parchment; not paper
Vellum
calf skin used in books
Parchment
sheep skin used in books
Northern Europe in comparison to Italy
- Northern Europe is more manorial and agrarian in nature
- Italy has many major urban centers
Coluccio Salutati
- a Florentine
- set up the famous library in Florence
- Bible as the highest form of literature
- looking at it like poetry due to the metaphors and techniques
-stories of eloquence and morality from pagan or classical texts could be incorporated into ones Christian faith
Christian Humanism
- the use of and interest in the classic to foster spiritual renewal and reform
- particularly interested in looking at old biblical texts and the Church Fathers (e.g. Augustine)
- the goal is to look at the Church in the old days because it believed that the Church had been corrupted over time
Erasmus
- the quintessential example of the Christian Humanist
- began studying Latin at 4
- entered a monastery; ordained a priest but more interested in Latin
- went to England and met several other humanists such as St. Thomas More
- Translated the New Testament into Latin
- his translation is much different than the Vulgate
- wrote “The Praise of Folly” (1511)
- early voices urging reform of the church including more educated clergy and doing rituals for spiritual reasons
- he never argues that there schooled be a split in the Church; reform of the Church within its existing structure
Martin Luther
- lawyer turned theologian
- 1510- Professor of Scripture at the University of Wittenberg
- establishes sola fide and sola scriptura
Sola fide
the salvation of one’s soul depended entirely on God
Sola Scriptura
God’s truth is only found in the Scriptures
The Indulgences Controversy
- indulgences were a way to buy oneself’s way out of heaven
- the treasury of merit
- Setting: Holy Roman Empire (1517)
- Cardinal Albrecht of Brandenburg ruled a good amount of land and wanted control over more land
- money for rebuilding St. Peters basilica
- Albrecht would pay the Pope Leo X for the Land by selling indulgences in order to ultimately rebuild St. Peter’s
-Prompts Luther’s 95 Theses
95 Theses
- not break the Church
- wanted to debate
Luther’s Encounter with the Authorities
- 1520- Luther is called before the Pope to recant his beliefs, which Luther refuses
- Luther is excommunicated
- Protected from arrest and execution by Prince Fredrick
1521- Luther is brought before the Diet of Worms (assemble of leaders in the Holy Roman Empire)
- he is again asked to recant
- he is publicly declared a heretic and banned from the empire
- has to essentially go into hiding
Impact of the Reformation
-Luther’s break from the Church is only the beginning of Protestantism
- personal concern over the salvation of one’s soul
- led to distrust and portrayal as heretical and dangerous
- the debate caused discord within families
- religion and politics are intertwined so whatever happens in religion affects politics
- formation of a variety of different interpretations of the Protestant faith (Anglicanism, Calvinism, etc)
Henry VIII of the Tudor Monarchy
- his title given by Pope Leo X due to his devotion to the Catholic faith in his “Assertion of the 7 Sacraments” in response to Luther’s beliefs
- devout Catholic in the first third of the 16th century
- excommunicated and issues the Act of Supremacy in the second third of the 16th century
- despite his initial devotion to the Catholic faith, he eventually breaks away from it
-he desired an annulment from Catherine of Aragon because he desired an heir
the Pope refused
- the king and Thomas Cramer (the Archbishop of Canterbury) turned to the English courts to fulfill his divorce
- he was excommunicated in the second third of the 16th century
- issues the Act of Supremacy in the second third of the 16th century in response to his excommunication
- issues the Statue of the 6 Articles
Act of Supremacy
- King Henry becomes the only head of the Church of England
- required Henry’s subjects to take
- known as the Anglican Church, yet the beliefs remained very Catholic
- people who did not take loyalty were punished and potentially executed, such as St. Thomas More
- marries Jane Seymour and they have a son named Edward
The Statute of the 6 Articles
- upheld traditionally Catholic tenants including transubstantiation, clerical celibacy, confession, communion for laity, private masses
- did close some monasteries and chantries- chapels/altars created for masses said for souls in purgatory
King Edward VI
- son of Henry VII and Jane Seymour
- reigned after his father
- popularized the Book of Common Prayer
- Archbishop of Canterbury Cranmer, created 42 articles
The Book of Common Prayer
the specific prayer book for English people
42 Articles
- articles of faith for the Anglican Church
- middle way between Lutherism and Calvinism
- stressed the importance of sola fide
- went again transubstantiation and purgatory
Mary Tudor “Bloody Mary”
- ruled after Edward
- daughter of Henry and Catherine
- her mother was from Spain, and was a staunch Catholic
- tried to reinstate Catholicism
- she got rid of the book of common prayer and the 42 articles
- she is called Bloody Mary because she executed over 300 followers of the protestant faith
Queen Elizabeth I
- the daughter of Henry and Anne Boleyn
- reigned after Mary Tudor
- Via Media- middle way between between protestantism and catholicism
- restored Protestantism
- brought back the Book of Common Prayer
- brought back the 42 articles but changed it to 39
- Issued an Act of Supremacy- made her the Queen of the Anglican Church and must take an oat of loyalty
- she allowed priests to wear Catholic vesicles and the liturgy of the mass remained Catholic
- after Elizabeth dies, the Tudor Monarchy gives way to the Stewart Monarchy
Puritans
want to purify the Church of England from its Catholic trappings
Why don’t we think about the Reformation in Italy?
- the home of the papacy
- it is true that the Italian Reformation never set up formal institution like the French or English Reformation
Characteristics of the Italian Reformation
- geographically wide-ranging (Venice, Lucca, Siena, Naples, etc)
- diversity of theological influences (Valdes, Luther, Calvin…)
Juan de Valdes
- humanist and religious thinker
- lived in Spain but moved to Naples due to the suspicions of the Inquisition
- he was a primary influence on the Spirituali
- stressed the importance of scripture and a life and faith that placed Christ at its center (like Luther and Calvin)
- believed in sola fide and sola scriptura in varying degrees
- wrote the 110 considerations
110 Considerations
-told that anybody seeking the happiness of man will be happy if they know the image of Christ and know God through the reading of the holy scriptures
- also stressed an internal quality of ones faith
- “a living fire within the hearts of the faithful)
- does not want to break from the Church like Erasmus
- written by Valdes
Spirituali
- many were drawn from the Italian intellectual elite (Guilia Gonzaga, Vittoria Colonna, Cardinal Reginald Pole)
- a group of people who often met in veglie, household salons and in academic societies
- they were circles of intellectuals who met in the homes of nobles
- many of them were in Italian academic societies, such as L’Accademia Degli Intronati in Siena
- had an immense impact on the Italian Reformation
Confraternity
lay religious organizations that were involved in charity activities
-they were hotspots for reform activities
The Confraternity of the Most Holy Trinity, Siena
- On the eve of all saints day, an artisan named Pietro Antonio denounced the saints and the Catholic belief that they could intervene with humans
- said that Christ is the only intercessor
- he was imprisoned, brought before the Inquisition, and asked to recant his beliefs
Socinianism
- established by the Fausto Sozzini
- challenged the existence of the holy trinity
The Sozzini Family
- Lelio and Fausto Sozzini
- anti-trinitarians
- early champions of religious toleration, though seen as very radical at the time
Bernarndino Ochino
- famous capuchin (Franciscan) preacher from Italy
- Leader of the Italian Reformed movement
- targeted by the Inquisition in the middle third of the 16th century because saints began to stopped being mentioned in his preachings
-he was called to Rome
instead, he fled into exile for the rest of his life
- he wrote prolifically to his followers while in exile
- printing press and censors were advantageous to him
-believes that faith is a “tapestry” of a variety of religious influences (Valdés, Calvin, Luther, …)
The Council of Trent
- series of meetings of Catholic theologians between 1545 and 1563 in Trent, Italy in which they discussed how to respond to protestantism
- rejected Luthers doctrine of Sola Fide
- reaffirmed the 7 sacraments
- reaffirmed purgatory and the cult of the saints
- affirmed the authority of the Vulgate Bible
- reaffirmed transubstantiation and the real presence of the body of Christ
Pope Paul IV
- a strict pope
- creates the Index of Forbidden Books
- cracks down on Church officials suspected of heresy (such as Cardinal Reginald Pole)
- confined Jews into ghettos
- progressively stricter pushback by Catholics towards protestantism
Pope Pius IV
- moderates the strictness of reform
- the creation of new religious order (the jesuits)
The Jesuits
- founded by St. Ignatius of Loyola
- one of the most important forces in the Catholic renewal
- priority of preaching and ministering in communities
- especially in the more resistant parts of the Italian peninsula (the South)
- the knights of christ
- the priority of teaching lead to the development of the jesuit university
- catholics used education to educate people through the principles of the catholic faith
- became teachers of catholic clergy, sons of nobility, and men in Italy
John Calvin
- French
- very well-educated; lawyer
- Institutes of the Christian Religion
- his father was a Catholic bishop but Calvin was drawn to Protestantism
- conversion to Protestantism and move to Geneva in the Swiss Confederation (part of HRE)
- France was staunchly Catholic
- Predestination
- Election
- Sola Fide and Sola Scriptura
Predestination
the belief that, since the beginning of time, God had already determined who would be save and would be damned
Election / The Elect
- if one was part of the elect, they were one of the ones who were saved
- there was, however, no sure way to know if one was part of elect
- often led to anxiety within society
Holy Roman Empire
- meant to unite Christendom
- formed under Charlamange
- made up of many states and leaders, like princes
- local rulers had a good deal of power
King Charles V
wanted an exclusively Catholic Empire, yet this was impossible
The Schmalkadic League
alliance of Luteran princes in the Empire fighting against King Charles V
The Peace of Augsburg
- whose region, that is his religion (curious regio, cause religio)
- Lutherism or Catholicism (the only two choices)
The Peace of Westphalia
- ended the Thirty Years War
- adds Calvinism as a choice in the HRE
- reestablishes the balance of power in Europe
- leaders made decisions on religion
France before the wars of religion
- France in the early 16th century was a staunchly Catholic country
- over time, communities of Huguenots (French Protestants of calvinist slant) began to form, especially in the South of France
Affair of the Placards
Huguenots put anti-catholic posters all over the town in the middle of the night
Leading up to the outbreak of War in France
- King Henry II is killed in a jousting accident
- Young Francis II is to take over
Factions want influence over him: the Guise Family and the Bourbon Family
- Protestant forces try to abduct King Francis II
- King Francis II dies
- Charles XI becomes King but his mother, Catherine rules as regent
Guise Family
staunchly and militantly Catholic
Bourbon Family
-Protestant leaders
Henry of Bourbon
Prince of Conde
Admiral Gaspard de Coligny
Massacre at Vassy
- Francis, Duke of Guise unleashed troops on a group of protestant worshiping
- marks the start of religious war
Wedding of Margueitte de Valls and Henry of Navarre of the Bourbon family
- supposed to bring Protestants and Catholic together
- assisination attempt on Admiral Coligny (Bourbon Fam)
St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre
- prompted by the assassination attempt on Admiral Coligny due to fear of retaliation by the protestants
- starts the religious wars in France
Edict of Nantes
- issues by Kind Henry IV
- allowed Huguenots to practice their faith in some parts of town
- Henry is killed by a radical Catholic due to his compromise and the Edict is later removed
