exam 1 lecture material Flashcards
what is the “blind watch maker”
natural selection
what are characteristics of living things (4)
- Complex
- Able to change in response to
environment - Able to reproduce
- Have the capacity to evolve
what is any system featuring a large number of interacting components whose aggregate activity is nonlinear (not derivable from the summations of the activity of individual components) and typically exhibits hierarchical self-organization under selective pressures.
a complex system
9 things living things do
evolve, maintain homeostasis, maintain order, acquire materials and energy from their environment, consist of one or more cells, grow and develop, perceive and process
ambient information, store replicate and process
hereditary information, reproduce
All life (as well as other forms of matter) are built of _____
atoms of basic elements
proton, neutron, and electron masses
1, 1, negligible
what is it when the same atoms have different numbers of neutrons and different masses
isotopes
what give off energy in the form of radiation from the nucleus
radioisotopes
This radioactive decay transforms the atom - it changes in the number of ______.
neutrons
Radioactivity can interact with ____
matter
Biologically speaking, the ______ are most important
electrons
The electron orbitals define the ________ of each substance: What other elements can combine and in what form with a given element.
chemical reactivity
Chemical behavior of atoms is determined by their _______
electron configuration
Sharing the same number of valence electrons gives elements ______ chemical properties
similar
is a type of chemical bond that involves the electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions
Ionic bonding
______ is a chemical bond that involves the sharing of electron pairs between atoms.
A covalent/molecular bond
what takes more energy to break a short triple bond, or a long single bond?
short triple bond
_____ can be used to date the age of fossils
Isotopes
Some toxic elements are dangerous because they ____ chemical properties with essential elements and can ____ them in our bodies.
share, replace
Living organisms require certain elements in order to grow and reproduce, what are they? what are the four most common our of the 6?
C, H, N, P, S and O
C, H, N, and O
_____ is chemically similar to magnesium and can replace it in enzymes
Beryllium
what element is useful in treating depression and other conditions
Lithium
________ considers how the balance of energy and elements affects and is affected by organisms and their interactions in ecosystems
Ecological stoichiometry
The presence or absence of key elements can ____ influence agriculture, biodiversity, and other issues
strongly
Plant growth is often limited by the presence of available _____ in the soil.
nitrogen
A lack of available nitrogen prevents the plants from growing to their potential, what color do they turn
yellow
how was nitrogen deficiency in plants solved?
artificial fertilizer
Where do we see a ‘dead zone’ each year as a result of cultural eutrophication?
In the Gulf of Mexico where the Mississippi River meets the ocean.
Water is a (polar/ non polar) molecule
polar
water is (hydro phobic/philic)?
hydrophilic
The chemical properties of ____ are important for life as we know it on earth.
water
____ is a measure of the concentration of protons in solution
pH
formula for pH
pH= -log [H+]
pure water has pH of __
7
pH is ____ regulated in the tissues and cells of our bodies
The pH of blood is slightly basic at around ____
The pH of our stomach rumen is strongly acidic at _______
carefully, 7.4, 1.5 to 3.5 pH.
Carbon dioxide released due to human activities are absorbed by the oceans resulting in ______
more acidic water
pH has important _____ impacts
physiological and biological
Ocean acidification _____ affects organisms that grow shells out of calcium carbonate.
negatively
what is life chemical backbone
Carbon
what can carbon form
single, double, and triple bonds, and isomers
whats an isomer
molecules with the same chemical formula but different structures
Many functional groups are polar and Thus allow carbon compounds to become ____ in the cell’s aqueous environment
Soluble
Proteins are composed of ______
amino acids
what is a chain of amino acids
peptide
what is a long continuous unbranched peptide chain
polypeptide
what is the primary protein structure?
sequence of chain of amino acids, looks like beads on bracelet
what is the secondary protein structure?
local folding of the polypeptide chain into helices or sheets, looks like DNA or ribbon
what is the tertiary protein structure?
3D folding pattern of a protein due to side chain connections, looks like see through worms
what is the quaternary protein structure?
protein consisting of more than one amino acid chain, looks like different worms
All life on earth is built with proteins composed of the same ___ amino acids
20
Peptide bonds form when the _____ atom in the carboxyl group of one amino acid is joined with the ____ atom in the amino group of the next in a covalent linkage.
carbon, nitrogen
The sequence of amino acids (and their chemical properties) determines how the protein will ____ into its three-dimensional structure
fold
what do nucleic acids contain
information
_______ is the genetic material for all organisms
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
_______ is a key player in protein synthesis and the regulation of gene expression.
Ribonucleic acid (RNA)
what is the only difference between the structures of RNA and DNA
there is a hydroxide (OH) bonded to the bottom right carbon in the sugar in RNA and a hydrogen atom (H) bonded to the bottom right carbon in the sugar in DNA
DNA and RNA are composed of three components, what are they?
a 5-carbon sugar, a nitrogen-containing base, and one or more phosphate groups
whats the backbone for RNA and DNA
sugar-phosphate backbone
The bases in nucleotides are built from nitrogen-containing rings and are of two types:
pyrimidines and purines
what are the purines
adenine and guanine
what are the pyrimidines
cytosine, thymine, and uracil
whats the difference in terns id pyrimidines between RNA and DNA
RNA has Uracil and DNA has Thymine
Which is double and which is single helix between DNA and RNA
DNA is double and RNA is single
how is DNA pyrimidines and Purines held together
hydrogen bonds
_______ in the DNA is stored in the sequence, or order, of successive nucleotides.
Genetic information
Sugars belong to a class of molecules called ____
carbohydrates
Glucose, fructose, and galactose are _____
isomers
A simple sugar is called a
monosaccharide
Open chain monosaccharides can form one of two ______
stereoisomers
what is a stereoisomer
each of two or more compounds differing only in the spatial arrangement of their atoms
Two simple sugars combined with a covalent bond is called a ______
disaccharide
Two simple sugars combine by means of a ______
glycosidic bond
Simple sugars combine in many ways to form ____
polysaccharides
Starch is easily digested by we humans. An enzyme in our saliva, ______, starts to break down starch even before it gets to our stomachs.
amylase
Cellulose is difficult to impossible for us to digest due to our _____
lack of the proper enzymes
_____ is an important form of energy storage in our bodies
Glycogen
Endurance athletes ‘hitting the wall’ = depletion of _____
glycogen stores
Lipids: Chemically diverse group of molecules that are all _____
hydrophobic
Why do we need fats (lipids) in our diet
- Provides long-term energy storage
* Keeps our bodies warm
whats an Examples of Triacylglycerols:
Fats stored in adipose tissue Olive Oil and Corn Oil
Fatty acids differ in the _____ of their ______
length, hydrocarbon chain
What is the difference between saturated and unsaturated fats?
Unsaturated fats have double bonds making them bent while saturated fats have single bonds making them straight
trick to remember saturated vs unsaturated
saturated straight
______ as they are called (because of the orientation of added hydrogen molecules) raise LDL and lower HDL and increase the risk of heart disease and stroke.
‘Trans-fats’
_______ was produced as an alternative to animal fats such as lard – presented as a healthier alternative
Partially hydrogenated oil
Doctors generally recommend consuming ______ fats (like olive oil) in place of ______ fats.
monounsaturated, saturated
The ______ of fatty acids depend upon their length and level of saturation due to Van der Waal’s forces
melting points
trend for increasing melting point of fatty acids
saturated is higher than unsaturated
longer has higher than shorter
______ such as cholesterol are biologically important lipids
Steroids
______ is a component of animal cell membranes
Cholesterol
Cholesterol serves as a precursor for the synthesis of _____ such as estrogen and testosterone.
hormones
what is the Lock-and-key kind of fit between the shapes, charges, hydrophobicity, and/or other physical properties of two biological molecules that allow formation of multiple non-covalent interactions between them at close range.
Molecular complementarity
Ions, and polar molecules, especially those that form hydrogen bonds with water are
hydrophilic
Nonpolar molecules such as hydrocarbons that interact with each other, but not with water, are
hydrophobic
______ are very important for the Functioning of membranes and membrane-bound proteins
Hydrophobic interactions
Cell membranes are composed of ______, called the _______
two layers of phospholipids, phospholipid bilayer
Phospholipids will _______ form structures when added to neutral water
spontaneously
All evidence suggests that membranes developed from ____, but their composition and function ______
straightforward physical processes, evolved over time
The famous _____ experiment created more than 20 amino acids by attempting to simulate the atmospheric conditions of early earth
Miller-Urey
While there are a huge number of possible amino acids that can be synthesized, only ___ amino acids are used by life-forms on earth to build proteins. These can differ in their _____ which add different chemical properties to each amino acid.
20, side chains (R – groups)
What are the three main categories of amino acids
hydrophobic, hydrophilic, and special
what are the three special amino acids
Cysteine, Glycine, and Proline
whats special about Glycine
Small enough to fit small spaces and Increases flexibility in polypeptide
whats special about Proline
Restricts rotation of C-N bond, thus imposing constraints on protein folding
whats special about cysteine
forms disulfide (S-S) bonds when in proximity with another Cysteine, helps thee overall shape of a protein
The _____ can be formed in experiments that duplicate what conditions may have been like on early earth.
building blocks of life
______ of amino acids determine the structure of proteins.
Chemical properties
Membranes and proteins can _____ form due to simple chemical interactions.
spontaneously
Some complex proteins require the help of ______ to be assembled.
chaperones
Chemical reactions can be _______ and may require the investment of activation energy to proceed.
exothermic or endothermic
In an exothermic reaction, what has higher energy, the reactants or the products?
Reactants
In an endothermic reaction, what has higher energy, the reactants or the products?
Products
______ help to lower the activation energy (energy barrier) and thus speed up chemical reactions.
Enzymes
How do enzymes work
induced fit model
explain the induced fit model
the substrate and enzyme enter the active site, the substrate and enzyme combine into a specific shape, the enzyme and substrate leave the active site
_____ can often be important in the work of enzymes
Cofactors and coenzymes
_______ proteins are at the root of many illnesses, including some cancers and cystic fibrosis as well as Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s and Creutzfeldt-Jakob diseases.
Improperly folded
______ are protein complexes that speed up the rate of chemical reactions.
Enzymes
_____ is the way cells generate energy
Cellular respiration
All cells require ______
input of free energy
Respiration is a series of chemical reactions that convert the ______ in fuel molecules into the chemical energy of ______, which can be used by cells.
chemical energy, ATP
_______ is the power house of the cell
Mitochondria
who is mitochondria inherited from
your mother
does mitochondria have its own DNA or does it replicate the DNA of what it attaches too?
its own
Cellular respiration is the process by which glucose gets turned into ____
ATP
Cellular respiration is an overall _______ process
exothermic
how efficient is cellular respiration
34%
_____ is the universal currency of energy for living things
ATP
Even though plants can use sunlight as a source of energy, they also utilize ______ to break down carbohydrates.
cellular respiration
Cellular respiration is an example of _____, where larger molecules are being broken down.
catabolism
what are the three stages of cellular respiration
glycolysis, citric acid cycle, electron transport chain
where does glycolysis take place
cytosol
where does citric acid cycle and electron transport chain take place
mitochondria
Respiration is a series of ______
exothermic redox reactions
_______ is the loss of electrons or an increase in oxidation state by a molecule, atom, or ion.
Oxidation
______ is the gain of electrons or a decrease in oxidation state by a molecule, atom, or ion.
Reduction
When a molecule is oxidized, it ____ energy.
loses
When a molecule is reduced, it _____ energy
gains
what is an example of reduction in cellular respiration
gaining a hydrogen since theres an e- in it
What is the reduced form between
ADP and ATP
NAD+ and NADH
FAD and FADH2
ATP
NADH
FADH2
which has a higher energy state, the oxidized or reduced form in coenzymes
the reduced form
How many ATP is produced in Glycolysis? In CAC? In ETC?
2, 2, 34
How many NADH is produced in Glycolysis? In CAC? In ETC?
2, 8, N/A
How many FADH2 is produced in Glycolysis? In CAC? In ETC?
N/A, 2, N/A
why should the pH in the inter-membrane space of the mitochondria be lower that he matrix
due to the higher concentration of protons in the inter-membrane space, theres more H+’s which lower the pH
what are nucleotides
DNA and RNA
The synthesis of complex molecules in living organisms from simpler ones together with the storage of energy
anabolism
the process of the breakdown of complex molecules in living organisms to form simpler ones, together with the release of energy
catabolism
what is a metabolic process that consumes sugar in the absence of oxygen
fermentation
what are the products of fermentation
organic acids, gases, or alcohol
where does fermentation occur
in yeast and bacteria, and also in oxygen-starved muscle cells, as in the case of lactic acid fermentation.
n the absence of oxygen, fermentation allows cells to continue _______
glycolysis
what are the two types of fermentation
lactic acid, Homolactic, and ethanol fermentation
In microorganisms, fermentation is the primary means of producing energy by the ______ of organic nutrients anaerobically
degradation
Fermentation turns _____ and _____ produced in glycolysis into _____ and an _____ which varies depending on the type of fermentation
NADH, pyruvate, NAD+, organic product
_________(producing only lactic acid) is the simplest type of fermentation. The pyruvate from glycolysis[9] undergoes a simple redox reaction, forming lactic acid.[2][10] It is unique because it is one of the only respiration processes to not produce a gas as a byproduct. Overall, one molecule of glucose (or any six-carbon sugar) is converted to two molecules of lactic acid: C6H12O6 → 2 CH3CHOHCOOH
Homolactic fermentation
The _______ of ATP is a key regulator of cellular respiration
intracellular level
(High/Low) ATP = no need for more ATP, respiration is then inhibited
High
(High/Low) ATP = a need for more ATP, respiration is stimulated.
Low
ATP regulates ________ allosterically – an example of feedback inhibition.
phosphofructokinase
what is fermentation a constant loop through
glycolysis
does fermentation need O2
no
were conditions 4 billion years ago anaerobic or aerobic
anaerobic
does glycolysis need O2
no
In aerobic respiration, _____ serves as the final electron acceptor in the electron transport chain - which overall generates much more ATP than does glycolysis or fermentation
oxygen
as ATP increases, the activity of the phosphofructinase (lowers/raises)
lowers
ATP regulates phosphofructokinase allosterically – an example of ________
feedback inhibition
what are two ways enzymes can be regulated
noncompetitive (allosteric) and competitive inhibition
Very often in biological systems, the end product of a series of events also acts as a ______
regulator
______ inhibition occurs when some inhibitor molecule competes with the substrate for a spot on the active site of the enzyme
Competitive
