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Exam 1 (Intro + Neuroendocrine) Flashcards

1
Q

Animals require what 2 things?

A
  1. energy
  2. basic chemical constituents (amino acids)
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2
Q

What is the purpose of basic chemical constituents like animo acids?

A

growth + repair

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3
Q

What is the drive to eat?

A

satisfy energy needs

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4
Q

What is assimilation?

A

taking nutrients into body

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5
Q

What two processes occur with assimilation?

A

digestion
absorption

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6
Q

Definition of digestion

A

ingested food changes to suitable form for absorption

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7
Q

Digestion occurs (inside/outside) the body tissues.

A

outside

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8
Q

3 examples of mechanical component to digestion

A

chewing
kneading (peristalsis)
ventriculus (gizzard) + grit - bird

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9
Q

What 4 things are GI exocrine secretions?

A

water
electrolytes
enzymes
mucus

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10
Q

What is the purpose of electrolytes in GI exocrine secretions?

A

nutrient absorption

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11
Q

What is the purpose of water + electrolytes in GI exocrine secretions?

A

provide volume
dissolution (dissolving)
control acid/base environment

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12
Q

Enzymes are powerful in which locations?

A

saliva
pancreas
intestines
microbe

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13
Q

Function of hydrolytic enzymes

A

use water to break bonds

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14
Q

Functions (2) of mucus GI secretions

A

lubricate dry matter to prevent injury
bacterial barrier

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15
Q

Digestion barrier functions to keep the body safe from what 3 things?

A

autodigestion
bacterial invasion
physical damage

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16
Q

What 3 things are part of the digestion barrier?

A

epithelium
mucus
proenzymes

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17
Q

What type of epithelium is present from the mouth to the cardia of the stomach?

A

stratified squamous

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18
Q

What type of epithelium is present in the stomach to the intestines?

A

simple columnar

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19
Q

What type of epithelium is present in the anus?

A

stratified squamous

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20
Q

Proenzymes are produced (active/inactive) and active in the _____.

A

inactive (no cell interference)
GI lumen

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21
Q

Carnivores have a (simple/complex) GI tract and the small intestine is ____x the body length.

A

simple
4x

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22
Q

Carnivores have a (short/long) transit time.

A

short

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23
Q

Omnivores have a (simple/complex) GI tract and the small intestine is ___x the body length.

A

complex
10-15

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24
Q

______ is retained for microbial digestion in omnivores.

A

plant matter

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25
Q

Which species dietary type has compartmentalized large intestines?

A

omnivore

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26
Q

What are the 2 strategies herbivores use to get nutrients?

A

hind-gut fermenters
foregut fermenters

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27
Q

(Hindgut/Foregut) Fermenters are considered monogastric.

A

hindgut

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28
Q

Hind-gut Fermenters have a compartmentalized large intestine that generates _______.

A

volatile fatty acids (VFA) or short chain FA

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29
Q

Hind-gut Fermenters have a small intestine that is ____x their body length.

A

6

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30
Q

Example of a hind-gut fermenter vs. foregut fermenter

A

hind-gut: horse
foregut: sheep

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31
Q

Foregut fermenters have a large, complex forestomach before their _____ stomach.

A

true

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32
Q

_____ can occur before the “true” stomach in foregut fermenters.

A

microbial digestion

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33
Q

Are hind-gut or foregut fermenters more efficient?

A

foregut

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34
Q

The ingested form of proteins have a (loose/tight) 3D molecular structure.

A

tight

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35
Q

What process is used to digest proteins?

A

hydrolysis (enzymatic digestion)

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36
Q

What is the absorbable form of proteins?

A

amino acids, dipeptides/tripeptides

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37
Q

Protein digestion pathway

A

epithelium –> blood –> portal vein –> liver

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38
Q

Ingested form of carbohydrates

A

complex polysaccharides

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39
Q

Ingested form of soluble carbohydrates vs. insoluble

A

Soluble: starches
Insoluble: cellulose

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40
Q

How are starches digested?

A

hydrolysis of 1-4 glycosidic link by mammal enzymes

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41
Q

How is cellulose digested?

A

hydrolysis of beta 1-4 glycosidic link by bacterial enzymes

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42
Q

Absorbable form of starches vs. cellulose

A

starches: monosaccharides
cellulose: volatile fatty acids

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43
Q

Starch (carb) digestion process

A

starch –> monosaccharide –> blood –> portal V –> liver

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44
Q

Cellulose (carb) digestion process

A

cellulose –> VFA across epithelium –> blood –> portal V –> liver

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45
Q

Ingested form of fat

A

triglycerides (hydrophobic)

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46
Q

What process does fat undergo by bile salts?

A

emulsification

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47
Q

What do triglycerides break into after emulsification?

A

micelles for better enzyme access

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48
Q

What process is fat digested by?

A

hydrolysis

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49
Q

Micelles release _____, _____, and _____.

A

glycerol
monoglycerides
free fatty acids

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50
Q

Micelles are re-esterified into triglycerides and exported in ______.

A

chylomicra

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51
Q

Chylomicra

A

glycoprotein triglycerides packaged to make them water soluble

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52
Q

Digested fat enters ______.

A

lymph

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53
Q

Why does digested fat enter lymph? (2)

A

too large for capillary pores
limited liver availability

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54
Q

Process by which digested foods enter blood or lymph

A

absorption

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55
Q

What 2 processes can occur during absorption?

A

active transport
passive transport

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56
Q

(T/F) Active transport is only paracellular.

A

False - only transcellular

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57
Q

What transporters are on the luminal side?

A

Nutrient transporters
Na/H exchanger
Cl/HCO3 exchanger

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58
Q

What transporters are on the basolateral side?

A

Na/K ATPase
Cl/HCO3 cotransporters
Facilitated diffusion transporters

59
Q

Na/K ATPase uses _______ transport and _____ is transported out of the cell which makes the inside of the cell ____.

A

primary active
Na+
negative

60
Q

Two types of transporters that are secondary active

A

Na+ coupled transporters
Electroneutral transporters

61
Q

What 2 transporters are part of the electroneutral transporters?

A

Na/H exchanger
Cl/HCO3 exchanger

62
Q

The electroneutral transporters mainly move ______.

A

electrolytes

63
Q

Passive transport is (transcellular/paracellular) for lipids/fatty acids, and (paracellular/transcellular) for electrolytes/water.

A

transcellular
paracellular

64
Q

Another name for paracellular transport

A

intercellular

65
Q

The stomach is made of ______ epithelium and what other structure?

A

simple columnar
gastric pits

66
Q

The small intestine is made of _____ epithelium and what 2 other structures?

A

simple columnar
crypts + villi

67
Q

Function of villi

A

increase surface area + absorption (for nutrients)

68
Q

(T/F) The large intestine has crypts and villi.

A

False - NO villi

69
Q

What is crypt epithelium?

A

stem cell compartment of intestine

70
Q

(T/F) There can be healthy forms of autodigestion.

A

True - ~10 cells per day autodigested in lumen

71
Q

What 5 cell types do stem cells give rise to?

A

absorptive cell
goblet cell
enteroendocrine cell
paneth cell
tuft cell

72
Q

Which cell type that stem cells give rise to makes up the majority?

A

absorptive cell

73
Q

What cell type releases mucous granules?

A

goblet cell

74
Q

What cell type produces hormones?

A

enteroendocrine cell

75
Q

What cell type secretes antimicrobial peptides + growth factors?

A

paneth cell

76
Q

What cell type detects parasite products + activates immune system?

77
Q

Where does anion secretion occur?

78
Q

Anion secretion is a process for ____ and ____ secretion by epithelium.

79
Q

3 functions of anion secretion

A

flush surface
hydrates mucous
adjusts pH in lumen

80
Q

In anion secretion, anions leave the cell through _____.

81
Q

CFTR is a pore permeable to __ and __ and secretes __ and __.

A

Cl- & HCO3
Na+ & water

82
Q

What two substances move paracellularly?

A

electrolytes + H2O

83
Q

Electrolytes + H2O move paracellularly (with/against) gradient and are rate limited by _____.

A

with
tight junctions

84
Q

Are each tight junctions considered leaky or tight?

small intestine
large intestine
stomach

A

leaky
tight
tight

85
Q

Why are tight junctions in small intestine “leaky”?

A

NaCl + H2O leak to maintain fluidity for digestion

86
Q

Why are tight junctions “tight” in large intestine?

A

retain net absorption
conserve ECF volume

87
Q

Why are tight junctions “tight” in stomach?

A

decrease leakage of HCl (hydrochloric acid)

88
Q

Gap junctions have (low/high) electrical resistance.

89
Q

Term for when nerves depolarize a few myocytes and it spreads via gap junctions.

A

Ephaptic conduction

90
Q

Term for myocytes contracting in unison

A

functional syncytium

91
Q

What specialized neurons set the pace of slow waves?

A

Interstitial cell of Cajal (ICC)

92
Q

Term for regular oscillations in membrane potential

A

slow waves

93
Q

Term for when depolarization phase of slow waves exceeds threshold

A

spike potential

94
Q

______ channels open –> contraction when depolarization exceeds threshold.

A

voltage-gated Ca2+

95
Q

Term for anatomical locations where slow waves regularly exceed threshold by ICC

A

pacemakers

96
Q

What 2 ways is contraction of visceral smooth muscle modulated?

A
  1. stretch depolarization
  2. regulation by ANS + humoral agents
97
Q

PSNS opens ___ channels and leads to (depolarization/hyperpolarization) while SNS opens ___ channels and leads to (depolarization/hyperpolarization).

A

Ca2+
depolarization
K+
hyperpolarization

98
Q

2 contraction modes of visceral smooth muscle

A

phasic
tonic

99
Q

What contraction mode is a long-term contraction with neural influence?

100
Q

Tonic contraction is a property of _____ muscle.

A

circular smooth

101
Q

What contraction mode is timed by slow waves?

102
Q

Peristalsis is an example of (phasic/tonic) contraction.

103
Q

What nervous system is made up of the ANS and outside the gut wall?

104
Q

What nervous system is called the “brain of the gut” with 2 parts?

105
Q

2 parts of the enteric nervous system

A

myenteric (auerbach’s) plexus
submucosal (meisner’s) plexus

106
Q

Which part of the enteric nervous system has a deep motor plexus in circular smooth muscle?

A

submucosal (meisner’s) plexus

107
Q

Which part of the enteric nervous system has ICC (pacemaker cells of peristalsis)?

A

myenteric (auerbach’s) plexus

108
Q

Longitudinal smooth muscle is (contracted/relaxed) by default, and with neural effect (contracted/relaxed).

A

relaxed
contracted

109
Q

Circular smooth muscle is (contracted/relaxed) by default, and with neural effect (contracted/relaxed).

A

contracted
relaxed

110
Q

What generate slow waves for peristaltic contractions of smooth muscle?

A

Interstitial cells of Cajal

111
Q

What are 3 components of the enteric nervous system?

A

afferent neurons
enteric interneurons
effector neurons

112
Q

Function of afferent neurons

113
Q

Function of enteric interneurons

A

integrate input
determine appropriate physiological response

114
Q

Which two components of enteric nervous system are primarily cholinergic?

A

afferent neurons
enteric interneurons

115
Q

What 3 types of afferent neurons are in mucosa?

A

chemoreceptors
osmoreceptors
mechanoreceptors

116
Q

What type of afferent neurons are present in muscle layers?

A

mechanoreceptors

117
Q

What to chemoreceptors detect?

A

pH, amino acids

118
Q

What do osmoreceptors detect?

A

change in osmotic pressure

119
Q

What do mechanoreceptors detect?

120
Q

Function of effector neurons

A

physical response

121
Q

Main function of effector neurons

A

promote digestion

122
Q

Effector neurons promote digestion by stimulating what 4 things?

A
  1. peristalsis + mixing
  2. net fluid secretion
  3. vasodilation of vasculature
  4. enteroendocrine cell degranulation
123
Q

Purpose of net fluid secretion stimulated by effector neurons

A

dissolve nutrients
decrease NaCl absorption (villi) and NaCl secretion crypt

124
Q

Enteroendocrine cell degranulation adds _______.

A

additional hormone control

125
Q

Vasodilation of splanchnic vasculature by effect neurons supports _____ and _____.

A

absorption
secretion

126
Q

What are the 2 major classes of effector neurons?

A
  1. cholinergic neurons
  2. inhibitory neurons
127
Q

Cholinergic neurons produce _____ and are _______.

A

acetylcholine
muscarinic/metabotropic

128
Q

Cholinergic neurons (relax/contract) longitudinal smooth muscle, (stimulate/inhibit) secretion/antiabsorption, and _____ cell degranulation.

A

contract
stimulate
enteroendocrine

129
Q

Inhibitory neurons are non______ and _____.

A

nonandrenergic
noncholinergic

130
Q

What 3 neurotransmitters are used by inhibitory neurons?

A

VIP (vasoactive intestine peptide)
NO (nitric oxide)
ATP (adenosine triphosphate)

131
Q

Inhibitory neurons (stimulate/relax) circular smooth muscle, (inhibit/stimulate) secretion/antiabsorption, and (constrict/dilate) splanchnic vasculature.

A

relax
stimulate
dilate

132
Q

Inhibitory neurons inhibit circular smooth muscle contraction by what NTs?

133
Q

Inhibitory neurons stimulate secretion/antiabsorption by what NT?

134
Q

Inhibitory neurons stimulate dilation of splanchnic vasculature by what NT?

135
Q

(T/F) Peristalsis can occur without PSNS/SNS influence.

A

True - solely with enteric NS

136
Q

Default state of circular smooth muscle layer is (contraction/relaxation).

A

contraction

137
Q

Default state of longitudinal smooth muscle layer is (contraction/relaxation).

A

relaxation

138
Q

Main control of circular smooth muscle layer is by _____ neurons which cause (contraction/relaxation).

A

inhibitory neurons
relaxation

139
Q

Main control of longitudinal smooth muscle layer is by ______ neurons which cause (contraction/relaxation).

A

cholinergic
contraction

140
Q

What physically happens to the lumen when longitudinal muscle = relaxed & circular = contracted?

A

decrease lumen diameter
decrease retrograde movement

141
Q

Oral to a food bolus, cholinergic & inhibitory neurons are (on/off) while aboral to bolus they are (on/off).

142
Q

After a food bolus, longitudinal muscle is (contracted/relaxed) while circular M is (contracted/relaxed).

A

contracted
relaxed

143
Q

What physically occurs in the lumen when longitudinal M contracts & circular M relaxes?

A

opens lumen for bolus to move forward

GI Physiology (6 decks)

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