Exam 1 Flashcards

1
Q

Hierarchal order in the body

A
protons neutrons & electrons
atoms
biomolecules
organelles
cells
tissue
organs
organ system
organisms
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
2
Q

definition of a cell

A

the smallest unit capable of carrying out the processes associated with life; the basic unit of both structure and function in a living organism

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
3
Q

how many cells are found in the human body? how many different types?

A

100 trillion total

200 different types

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
4
Q

largest and smallest cells in human body

A
largest = nerve or skeletal muscle cell
smallest = sperm cell
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
5
Q

Basic cell functions how many? and list them

A

7
) Obtain oxygen and nutrients.
2) Perform energy-generating reactions. (Metabolism)
(Nutrients + O2 CO2 + H2O + Energy)
3) Eliminate waste products.
4) Synthesize components needed for cell functions, structure maintenance, and cell growth. Synthesis occurs through metabolism as well
5) Control movement of materials between the cell and its environment.
6) Movement of material within the cell.
7) Sense and respond to signals indicating a change in the surrounding environment.
8) Cell division. (Reproduction) Cell division – not carried out by all cells all the time (reproduction primarily

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
6
Q

definition of tissues

A

combined groups of cells of similar structure and specialized function

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
7
Q

four primary tissue types in the body

A

connective tissue, muscle tissue, epithelial tissue, nerve tissue

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
8
Q

muscle tissue

A

cells contract generate force allows for movement

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
9
Q

nerve tissue

A

cells send electrical impulses (action potentials) relay information

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
10
Q

epithelial tissue

A

Cells exchange material (between body and environment). Ex: Skin, lining of digestive tract, sweat glands also provide protective mechanism

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
11
Q

connective tissue

A

Cells connect, support and anchor various body parts. Ex: tendons, bone, and blood cells.
Red blood cells (erythrocytes) carry oxygen and carbon dioxide.
White blood cells fight infection.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
12
Q

definition of an organ

A

a structure composed of tissues and cells that performs a specific function or functions

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
13
Q

definition of a body system

A

a collection of organs, tissues, and cells that perform related functions and interact to accomplish a common activity essential for the survival of the human body

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
14
Q

endocrine system organs / tissues

A

hypothalamus, pituitary gland adrenal gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid glands, thymus, pancreas

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
15
Q

endocrine system functions

A

provide communication between cells of the body through the release of hormones into the blood stream

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
16
Q

nervous system organs / tissures

A

brain, spinal cord, peripheral nerves

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
17
Q

nervous system functions

A

provide communication between cells of the body through electrical signals and the release of neurotransmitters into small gaps between certain cells

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
18
Q

musculoskeletal system organs / tissues

A

skeletal muscle, bones, tendons, ligaments

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
19
Q

musculoskeletal system functions

A

support the body, allow voluntary movement of body, allow facial expressions

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
20
Q

cardiovascular organs / tissues

A

heart, blood vessels, blood

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
21
Q

cardiovascular sytem functions

A

transport molecules throughout the body in the bloodstream

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
22
Q

respiratory organs / tissues

A

lungs, pharynx, trachea, bronchi

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
23
Q

factors influencing the rate of net diffusion of a substance across a membrane

A

increased concentration of gradient of substance = increased effect on rate of net diffusion

increased surface area of membrane = increased effect on rate of net diffusion

increased lipid solubility = increased effect on rate of net diffusion

increased molecular weight of substance = decreased effect on rate of net diffusion

increased distance (thickness) = decreased effect on rate of net diffusion

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
24
Q

urinary system organs / tissues

A

kidneys, ureters, bladder, urethra

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
25
Q

urinary system functions

A

filter the blood to regulate acidity, blood volume, and ion concentrations, eliminates waste

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
26
Q

gastrointestinal organs / tissues

A

mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, liver, pancreas, gallbladder

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
27
Q

gastrointestinal system functions

A

break down food and absorb it into the body

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
28
Q

immune system organs / tissues

A

white blood cells, thymus, lymph nodes, spleen, tonsils, adenoids

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
29
Q

immune system functions

A

defend the body against pathogens and abnormal cells

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
30
Q

integumentary system organs / functions

A

skin

protects the body from the external environment

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
31
Q

homeostatically regulated factors

A
  • Concentration of nutrients: Required to maintain needed energy
  • Concentration of O2 and CO2: Required to produce adequate energy; must be eliminated to maintain pH
  • Concentration of waste products: Accumulation could result in toxicity
  • pH: Large fluctuations could result in cell death
  • Concentrations of water, salt, other electrolytes: Required to maintain cell volume & normal cell function
  • Plasma Volume and Pressure: Ensures body-wide distribution of nutrients; Ensures removal of waste products
  • Temperature: Required to maintain protein integrity and function
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
32
Q

passive transport definition

A

Net movement of molecules or ions from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration (in other words, movement down a concentration gradient/chemical gradient) across a membrane.
No outside energy is required.
Given enough time and absence of impediment to flow, a dynamic equilibrium will be reached

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
33
Q

factors influencing the rate of net diffusion of a substance across a membrane

A

increased concentration of gradient of substance = increased effect on rate of net diffusion

increased surface area of membrane = increased effect on rate of net diffusion

increased lipid solubility = increased effect on rate of net diffusion

increased molecular weight of substance = decreased effect on rate of net diffusion

increased distance (thickness) = decreased effect on rate of net diffusion

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
34
Q

definition of osmosis

A

The movement (diffusion) of water through a semi permeable membrane down its concentration gradient/chemical gradient (from higher concentration to lower concentration) toward a higher concentration of solute.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
35
Q

solute

A

A dissolved substance in solution

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
36
Q

solvent

A

A liquid that holds another substance in solution

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
37
Q

In osmosis water is the _______; everything else is _____!

A

solvent, solute

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
38
Q

When hydrostatic pressure _____osmotic pressure net movement of water ceases.

A

equals

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
39
Q

hypo-osmotic solution

A

Hypo-osmotic Solution: Has a total concentration of solutes less than that in the cell

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
40
Q

facilitated diffusion definition

A

Substance combines with a membrane carrier protein on one side of the membrane, is transported through the membrane, then is released on the other side.
A Type of Passive “Assisted” Transport

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
41
Q

iso-osmotic solution

A

Has a total concentration of solutes equal to that in the cell

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
42
Q

proteasome structure and function

A

Cylindrical protein complexes consisting of a hollow core particle capped on both ends by a regulatory particle
Degrade unwanted intracellular proteins that have been tagged for destruction by ubiquitin

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
43
Q

tonicity definition

A

A measure of the effect a solution has on cell volume when the solution surrounds the cell. A function of the behavior of a cell placed in a solution.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
44
Q

membrane channel transport definition

A

Substance moves from one side of membrane to the other through a membrane channel (a pore or passage) which may always be open or which may be gated
Another Type of Passive Assisted Diffusion

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
45
Q

If cell volume increases when placed in a solution, the solution is

A

hypotonic

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
46
Q

If cell volume decreases when placed in a solution, the solution is

A

hypertonic

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
47
Q

in primary active transport what is required by the transporter?

A

ATP

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
48
Q

hypertonic solution

A

: A cell will shrink when placed in a

hypertonic solution

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
49
Q

examples of secondary active transport

A

e. g. Transport of amino acids and glucose from the lumen of the intestine into the blood.
e. g. Transport of amino acids and glucose from the kidney tubules back to the blood.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
50
Q

facilitated diffusion definition

A

Substance combines with a membrane carrier protein on one side of the membrane, is transported through the membrane, then is released on the other side.
A Type of Passive “Assisted” Transport

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
51
Q

facilitated diffusion characteristics

A
Concentration gradient = net diffusion
Carrier molecule required
Exhibits saturation kinetics
Has specificity
Displays competitive inhibition
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
52
Q

specificity facilitated diffusion characteristic

A

The transporter will only transport molecules of a certain shape across the membrane (i.e. glucose but not amino acids)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
53
Q

competitive inhibition

A

Similar molecules compete for the same carrier

2-Deoxyglucose (2DG) is transported similarly to glucose. Less glucose is transported when 2DG is in the solution.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
54
Q

how is the heart rate regulated?

A

Working muscles use oxygen, make carbon dioxide, make lactic acid, etc.
Sensors in the body detect changes and inform the integration center in the brain which, in turn, regulates neuronal activity.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
55
Q

saturation kinetics definition

A

Transporters are transporting at maximum rate all transporters being used and moving glucose as fast as they can from an area of high to low concentration.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
56
Q

primary active transport examples

A

Sodium-Potassium ATPase Pump transports sodium out of and potassium into the cell.

Calcium ATPase Pump transports calcium out of cell or into endoplasmic reticulum

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
57
Q

in primary active transport what is required by the transporter?

A

ATP

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
58
Q

Secondary Active transport

A

ATP is required to generate a concentration/chemical gradient. The secondary active transporter is driven by “energy” derived from the created gradient.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
59
Q

examples of secondary active transport

A

e. g. Transport of amino acids and glucose from the lumen of the intestine into the blood.
e. g. Transport of amino acids and glucose from the kidney tubules back to the blood.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
60
Q

Average heart beats

A

70/min
100,800/day
36.8 million/yr

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
61
Q

volume of blood pumped

A

7,200 L/day
2.6 million liters/year
195 million liters in 75 years

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
62
Q

Acetylcholine ___ heart rate

A

decreases

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
63
Q

Norepinephrine _____ heart rate and strength of contraction

A

increases

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
64
Q

how is the heart rate regulated?

A

Working muscles use oxygen, make carbon dioxide, make lactic acid, etc.
Sensors in the body detect changes and inform the integration center in the brain which, in turn, regulates neuronal activity.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
65
Q

saturation kinetics definition

A

Transporters are transporting at maximum rate all transporters being used and moving glucose as fast as they can from an area of high to low concentration.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
66
Q

channel proteins are ___

A

always open

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
67
Q

gated channel proteins

A

can be open or closed

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
68
Q

Phosphorylation induces

A

Phosphorylation induces protein conformation change

Conformation change alters binding affinity

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
69
Q

membrane potential

A

A separation of charges across the membrane; a slight excess of negative charges lined up along the inside of the plasma membrane and separated from a slight excess of positive charges on the outside

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
70
Q

collagen definition

A

forms flexible but nonelastic fibers or sheets that provide tensile strength (resistance to being stretched lengthwise). Collagen is the most abundant protein in the body, making up nearly half of total body protein by weight.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
71
Q

elastin

A

is a rubbery protein fiber most plentiful in tissues that must easily stretch and then recoil after the stretching force is removed. It is found, for example, in the lungs, which stretch and recoil as air moves in and out of them.

72
Q

fibronectin

A

promotes cell adhesion and holds cells in position. Reduced amounts of this protein have been found within certain types of cancerous tissue, possibly accounting for cancer cells’ inability to adhere well to one another; instead, they tend to break loose and metastasize (spread elsewhere in the body).

73
Q

3 types of specialized cell junctions

A

desmosomes (adhering junctions),

tight junctions (impermeable junctions), or

gap junctions (communicating junctions).

74
Q

desmosomes

A

Desmosomes are adhering junctions that spot-rivet cells, anchoring them together in tissues subject to considerable stretching.

75
Q

tight junctions

A

adjacent cells bind firmly with each other at points of direct contact to seal off the passageway between the two cells found primarily in sheets of epithelial tissue

76
Q

gap junctions

A

Gap junctions are communicating junctions made up of connexons, which form tunnels that permit movement of charge-carrying ions and small molecules between two adjacent cells.especially abundant in cardiac muscle and smooth muscle

77
Q

hydrostatic pressure

A

is the pressure exerted by a standing, or stationary, fluid on an object—in this case, the membrane (hydro means “fluid”; static means “standing”).

78
Q

osmotic pressure

A

is a measure of the tendency for osmotic flow of water into that solution because of its relative concentration of nonpenetrating solutes and water

79
Q

osmolarity

A

Osmotic pressure is an indirect measure of solute concentration, expressed in units of pressure. A more direct means of expressing solute concentration is the osmolarity of a solution, which is a measure of its total solute concentration given in terms of the number of particles (molecules or ions

80
Q

tonicity

A

tonicity of a solution is the effect the solution has on cell volume—whether the cell remains the same size, swells, or shrinks—when the solution surrounds the cell. The tonicity of a solution has no units and is a reflection of its concentration of nonpenetrating solutes relative to the cell’s concentration of nonpenetrating solutes

81
Q

osmotic vs. hydrostatic pressure

A

Osmotic pressure is a “pulling” pressure; it is a measure of the tendency for osmotic flow of water into a solution resulting from its relative concentration of nonpenetrating solutes and water. Hydrostatic (fluid) pressure is a “pushing” pressure; it is the pressure exerted by a stationary fluid on an object.

82
Q

what are the 7 basic cell functions?

A

Obtain oxygen and nutrients.

2) Perform energy-generating reactions. (Metabolism)
(Food + O2 CO2 + H2O + Energy)

3) Eliminate waste products.
4) Synthesize components needed for cell functions, structure maintenance, and cell growth.
5) Control movement of materials between cell and its environment.
6) Movement of material within cell.
7) Sense and respond to signals indicating a change in the surrounding environment.

83
Q

All the different cell types derive from what?

A

the zygote

84
Q

differentiation definition

A

Developmental process by which cells become specialized in structure to carry out specific functions

85
Q

totipotent definition

A

Capable of forming every cell type present in the fully formed individual

86
Q

atrophy

A

A gradual decrease in size

Example: Muscle, Adipocyte

87
Q

hyperplasia

A

Stimulated mitotic divisions in cells by increased functional demands
Example: Callous on hands & feet

88
Q

hypertrophy

A

The growth of an organ or tissue due to an increase in the size of its cells
Example: Muscle, Adipocyte

89
Q

dysplasia

A

Deranged cellular growth resulting in variations in size, shape, and appearance of cells
Example: Tumors

90
Q

metaplasia

A

The transformation of one cell type into another.
Example: Transformation of injured skin epithelia to fibroblasts which secrete collagen fibers, which aid in healing.

91
Q

principles of cell theory

A

The cell is the smallest structural and functional unit capable of carrying out life processes.
The functional activities of each cell depend of the specific structural properties of the cell.
Cells are the living building blocks of all multicellular organisms.
All organism’s structure and function ultimately depend on the collective structural characteristics and functional capabilities of its cells.
All new cells and new life arise only from preexisting cells.
Because of this continuity of life, the cells of all organisms are fundamentally similar in structure and function.

92
Q

genome

A

All the genetic information encoded in a complete single set of DNA in a typical body cell.

93
Q

Proteome

A

The complete set of proteins that can be expressed by the protein-coding genes in the genome.

94
Q

metabolome

A

The complete set of small-molecule chemicals found in a body cell.

95
Q

lipidome

A

The totality of lipids found in body cells.

96
Q

microbiome

A

The bacteria, viruses, and fungi found within and on the body. Each region of the body has its own, usually unique, microbiome.

97
Q

epigenetics

A

Environmentally induced modifications of a gene’s activity that arise from chemical “tags” placed on DNA or associated proteins.

98
Q

Nucleus and characteristics

A

The nucleus is a spheroid body within a cell. Site of expression of genetic information. As such it is the control center for the cell.
Largest structure in the cell.
Enclosed by a nuclear envelope (a double-membrane structure).
Envelope studded with openings called nuclear pores.
Contains the nucleolus: the site of ribosome biogenesis

99
Q

DNA

A

Serves as a genetic blueprint during cell replication (“the genome”)
Provides instructions for protein synthesis (source of “the proteome”)
Provides instructions for lipid enzyme synthesis (primary source of “the lipidome”)

100
Q

membranous organelles

A

endoplasmic reticulum, golgi complex, lysosomes, peroxisomes, mitochondria

101
Q

non-membranous organelles

A

ribosomes, proteasomes, vaults, centrioles

102
Q

parts in the cytosol

A

intermediary metabolism enzymes, transport, secretory, and endocytic vesicles, inclusions

103
Q

active transport

A

Active carrier-mediated transport involving the transport of a substance against its concentration gradient across the plasma membrane

104
Q

endoplasmic reticulum structure and function

A

extensive continuous network of fluid -filled tubules and flattened sacs, partially studded with ribosomes
Forms new cell membrane and other cell components and manufactures products for secretion

105
Q

secondary active transport

A

A transport mechanism in which a carrier molecule for glucose or an amino acid is driven by a concentration gradient established by the energy-dependent pump to transfer the glucose or amino acid uphill without directly expending energy to operate the carrier

106
Q

lysosomes structure and function

A

Membranous sacs containing hydrolytic enzymes

Serve as cell’s digestive system, destroying foreign substances and cellular debris

107
Q

peroxisome structure and function

A

Membranous sacs containing oxidative enzymes

Perform detoxification activities

108
Q

mitochondria structure and function

A

Rod- or oval-shaped bodies enclosed by two membranes, with the inner membrane folded into cristae that project into an interior matrix
Act as energy organelles; major site of ATP production; contain enzymes for citric acid cycle, proteins of electron transport system, and ATP synthase

109
Q

endocytosis

A

en’-dō-si-TŌ-sis) Internalization of extracellular material within a cell as a result of the plasma membrane forming a pouch that contains the extracellular material, then sealing at the surface of the pouch to form an endocytic vesicle

110
Q

transcytosis

A

pathway that shuttles large intact molecules from one side of a cell to the other, such as when materiasl are transferred from blood, through the capillaries, and into the surrounding tissue.

111
Q

vaults

A

Shaped like hollow octagonal barrels

Serve as cellular trucks for transport from nucleus to cytoplasm

112
Q

centrioles

A

A pair of cylindrical structures at right angles to each other
Form and organize microtubules during assembly of the mitotic spindle during cell division and form cilia and flagella

113
Q

Determination of membrane potential by unequal distribution of positive and negative charges across the membrane.

A

When positive and negative charges are equally balanced on each side of the membrane, no membrane potential exists.

When opposite charges are separated across the membrane, membrane potential exists.

The unbalanced charges responsible for the potential accumulate in a thin layer along opposite surfaces of the membrane.

Most of the fluid in the ECF and ICF is electrically neutral.

The greater the separation of charges across the membrane, the larger the potential

114
Q

resting membrane potential

A

The membrane potential that exists when an excitable cell is not displaying an electrical signal

115
Q

membrane potential

A

a separation of opposite charges across the membrane, or a difference in the relative number of cations and anions in the ECF and ICF

116
Q

microtubules

A

Long, slender, hollow tubes composed of tubulin molecules
Maintain asymmetric cell shapes and coordinate complex cell movements, specifically serving as highways for transport of secretory vesicles within cell, serving as main structural and functional component of cilia and flagella, and assembling into mitotic spindle

117
Q

microfilaments

A

Intertwined helical chains of actin molecules; microfilaments composed of myosin molecules also present in muscle cells
Play a vital role in various cellular contractile systems, including muscle contraction and amoeboid movement; serve as a mechanical stiffener for microvilli

118
Q

peroxisomes

A

Membranous organelles
Produce and decompose hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) while degrading potentially toxic molecules
House oxidative enzymes that detoxify various wastes
Oxidative enzymes use oxygen (O2) to strip hydrogen from certain organic molecules
Converts hydrogen peroxide into water and oxygen

119
Q

differences between channel and carrier proteins

A

Only ions fit through the narrow channels, whereas small polar molecules such as glucose and amino acids are transported across the membrane by carriers.

Channels can be open or closed, but carriers are always “open for business” (although the number and kinds of carriers in the plasma membrane can be regulated).

Movement through channels is considerably faster than carrier-mediated transport is.

120
Q

Carrier-mediated transport systems display three important characteristics that determine the kind and amount of material that can be transferred across the membrane: _______ ______ ______

A

specificity, saturation, and competition.

121
Q

facilitated diffusion

A

Passive carrier-mediated transport involving transport of a substance down its concentration gradient across the plasma membrane

122
Q

active transport

A

Active carrier-mediated transport involving transport of a substance against its concentration gradient across the plasma membrane

123
Q

primary active transport

A

A carrier-mediated transport system in which energy is directly required to operate the carrier and move the transported substance against its concentration gradient

124
Q

secondary active transport

A

A transport mechanism in which a carrier molecule for glucose or an amino acid is driven by a concentration gradient established by the energy-dependent pump to transfer the glucose or amino acid uphill without directly expending energy to operate the carrier

125
Q

symport

A

The form of secondary active transport in which the driving ion and transported solute move in the same direction across the plasma membrane; also called cotransport

126
Q

antiport

A

The form of secondary active transport in which the driving ion and transported solute move in opposite directions across the plasma membrane; also called counter-transport or exchange

127
Q

vesicular transport

A

Movement of large molecules or multimolecular materials into or out of the cell within a vesicle, as in endocytosis or exocytosis

128
Q

endocytosis

A

en’-dō-si-TŌ-sis) Internalization of extracellular material within a cell as a result of the plasma membrane forming a pouch that contains the extracellular material, then sealing at the surface of the pouch to form an endocytic vesicle

129
Q

transcytosis

A

pathway that shuttles large intact molecules from one side of a cell to the other, such as when materiasl are transferred from blood, through the capillaries, and into the surrounding tissue.

130
Q

purposes of exocytosis

A

It provides a mechanism for secreting large polar molecules, such as protein hormones and enzymes that are unable to cross the plasma membrane. In this case, the vesicular contents are highly specific and are released only on receipt of appropriate signals.

It enables the cell to add specific components to the membrane, such as selected carriers, channels, or receptors, depending on the cell’s needs. In such cases, the composition of the membrane surrounding the vesicle is important and the contents may be merely a sampling of ICF.

131
Q

exocytosis

A

In exocytosis, almost the reverse of endocytosis occurs. A membrane-enclosed vesicle formed within the cell fuses with the plasma membrane, then opens up and releases its contents to the exterior. Materials packaged for export by the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi complex are externalized by exocytosis.

132
Q

Determination of membrane potential by unequal distribution of positive and negative charges across the membrane.

A

When positive and negative charges are equally balanced on each side of the membrane, no membrane potential exists.

When opposite charges are separated across the membrane, membrane potential exists.

The unbalanced charges responsible for the potential accumulate in a thin layer along opposite surfaces of the membrane.

Most of the fluid in the ECF and ICF is electrically neutral.

The greater the separation of charges across the membrane, the larger the potential

133
Q

resting membrane potential

A

The membrane potential that exists when an excitable cell is not displaying an electrical signal

134
Q

membrane potential

A

a separation of opposite charges across the membrane, or a difference in the relative number of cations and anions in the ECF and ICF

135
Q

smooth endoplasmic reticulum

A

Membrane-bound tubules arranged in a looping network
Catalyzes various reactions in different organs of the body:
-In the liver – lipid and cholesterol metabolism and synthesis, breakdown of glycogen, and, along with the kidneys, detoxification of drugs
-In the testes and ovaries – synthesis of steroid-based hormones
-In the intestinal cells – absorption, synthesis, and transport of fats
-In skeletal and cardiac muscle – storage and release of calcium

136
Q

lysosome

A

Small, membrane-enclosed, degradative organelle
Synthesized on ribosomes & transported through the Golgi
Scattered throughout cytoplasm.
Contains “digestive” enzymes including over 40 acid hydrolases.
Lysosomal membrane is resistant to its own enzymes.
Digest worn-out organelles and cellular structures, & extracellular material brought into the cell by phagocytosis.

137
Q

peroxisomes

A

Membranous organelles
Produce and decompose hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) while degrading potentially toxic molecules
House oxidative enzymes that detoxify various wastes
Oxidative enzymes use oxygen (O2) to strip hydrogen from certain organic molecules
Converts hydrogen peroxide into water and oxygen

138
Q

Methods of simple diffusion

A

diffusion through lipid bilayer, diffusion through protein channel, osmosis

139
Q

diffusion through lipid bilayer substances involved, energy requirements and force producing movement and limits to transport

A

nonpolar molecules of any size (O2 CO2 fatty acids etc)

passive molecules move down concentration gradient (high to low concentration)
continues until gradient it abolished (dynamic equilibrium with no net diffusion

140
Q

diffusion through protein channels substances involved, energy requirements and force producing movement and limits to transport

A

specific small ions (Na+ K+ Ca2+ Cl-
passive ions move down electrochemical gradient through open channels (grom high to low concentration and by attraction of ion to area of opposite charge)
continues until there is no net movement and dynamic equilibrium is established.

141
Q

Osmosis substances involved, energy requirements and force producing movement and limits to transport

A

water only
passive water moves down its own concentration gradient (to area of lower water concentration - that is higher solute concentration
continues until concentration difference is abolished or until stopped by opposing hydrostatic pressure or until cell is destroyed

142
Q

facilitated diffusion substances involved, energy requirements and force producing movement and limits to transport

A

specific polar molecules for which carrier is available, passive molecules move down concentration gradient (high to low)
displays a transport maximum (Tm) carrier can become saturated

143
Q

carrier-mediated transport types

A

facilitated diffusion, primary active transport, secondary active transport (symport or antiport)

144
Q

primary active transport substances involved, energy requirements and force producing movement and limits to transport

A

specific cations for which carriers are available (eg. Na+ K+ H+ Ca2+)
Active, ions move against concentration gradient (from low to high concentration) requires ATP
displays a transport maximum carrier can become saturated

145
Q

secondary active transport (symport or antiport) substances involved, energy requirements and force producing movement and limits to transport

A

Specific polar molecules and ions for which coupled transport carriers are available (e.g., glucose, amino acids for symport; some ions for antiport)
Active; substance moves against concentration gradient (from low to high concentration); driven directly by ion gradient (usually ) established by ATP-requiring primary pump. In symport, cotransported molecule and driving ion move in same direction; in antiport, transported solute and driving ion move in opposite directions Displays a transport maximum; coupled transport carrier can become saturated

146
Q

Vesicular transport types

A

endocytosis (pinocytosis, receptor-mediated endocytosis, phagocytosis)
exocytosis

147
Q

pinocytosis

substances involved, energy requirements and force producing movement and limits to transport

A

small volume of ECF fluid also important in membrane recycling

active plasma membrane dips inward and pinches off at surface forming internalized vesicle
control poorly understood

148
Q

receptor mediated endocytosis

substances involved, energy requirements and force producing movement and limits to transport

A

specific large polar molecule (protein)
active plasma membrane dips inward and pinches off at surface forming internalized vesicle

necessitates binding to specific receptor on membrane surface

149
Q

phagocytosis

substances involved, energy requirements and force producing movement and limits to transport

A

multimolecular particles (eg bacteria and cellular debris)

active, cell extends pseudopods that surround particle, forming internalized vesicle

necessitates binding to specific receptor on membrane surface

150
Q

exocytosis

substances involved, energy requirements and force producing movement and limits to transport

A

Secretory products (e.g., hormones and enzymes) as well as large molecules that pass through cell intact; also important in membrane recycling Active; increase in cytosolic induces fusion of secretory vesicle with plasma membrane; vesicle opens up and releases contents to outside Secretion triggered by specific neural or hormonal stimuli; other controls involved in transcellular traffic and membrane recycling not known

151
Q

phagocytosis vs. pinocytosis

A

Phagocytosis and pinocytosis are specific forms of endocytosis. Solid materials enter cells by phagocytosis.
Liquids enter cells by pinocytosis.

152
Q

pinocytosis

A

cell drinking Ingestion of membrane & fluid along with dissolved substances

153
Q

receptor mediated endocytosis

A

Receptor (outside plasma membrane) binding of chemical messenger initiates endocytosis.

154
Q

exocytosis

A

Release of contents of secretory vesicles from the cell

155
Q

membrane potential

A

Membrane potential is the separation of charges across a membrane
The plasma membrane of all living cells has a membrane potential
In nearly all cell types there is a slight excess of negative charges lined up in the along the inside of the plasma membrane and a slight excess of positive charges along the outside of the plasma membrane

156
Q

voltage

A

Pressure that causes movement of charged particles. The higher the voltage the greater the current.

157
Q

current

A

movement of charged particles (electrons, cations, anions) from one point to another.

158
Q

The _____ the resistance, the less the current.

A

higher

159
Q

Ohm’s LAw

A
I = E/R
I = current amps A
E or V = Voltage (volts V)
R = Resistance (ohms )
V=IR
160
Q

Nernst equation

A

The Nernst Equation tells us what voltage must be applied (to side A compared to side B) to prevent diffusion of an ion down its specific concentration gradient (in this example: Potassium):

161
Q

permeability of cell membrane is a function of

A

Size of molecules (larger – harder) ; Solubility in lipids; Ionic charge (greater the charge the more difficult ot pass); Presence of channels (have openings that allow for some specific molecules to pass) and carrier molecules. (made of proteins that carry molecules from one side to another)

162
Q

plasma membrane is composed of

A

The “Gate Keeper”
-Semi-permeable: Permits selected material to pass through

Composed of: Lipid (phospholipids & cholesterol) (43%); Protein (55%); Carbohydrate (2%)

163
Q

phospholipid structure and function

A

Polar ends of phospholipids are
Hydrophilic (like water) & lipophobic (don’t dissolve in lipids)

Non-polar fatty acid tails are Hydrophobic (don’t like water) & lipophylic (dissolve in lipids)

Functions
Help establish a semi-permeable barrier
Contributes to membrane fluidity

164
Q

functions of cholesterol

A

Membrane fluidity-
Prevent adjacent fatty acids from forming crystals

Membrane Stability-
Association with phospholipid stabilizes their position

165
Q

lipid raft function

A

Reception of extracellular communication

made up mostly of sphingolipids

166
Q

3 types of proteins and functions

A

Integral Proteins
Embedded within plasma membrane

Transmembrane Proteins
Span the width of the membrane

Peripheral Proteins
Partially embedded on one (either) side of the membrane
Structure 
Enzymes 
Receptors  
Channels
Gated Channels
167
Q

enzymes

A

Enzymes - (enhance rate that chemical reactions occur message communication and alteration of membrane itself)

168
Q

carbohydrateds and function

A
Carbohydrates
	Present on surface of the cell membrane as:
Glycoproteins
Glycolipids
Form a “Sugary Husk”
The “Glycocalyx”

Functions
Protect the cell surface

Keep cells together

Role in “self-recognition” processes

Prevent over-population

169
Q

microvilli definition and function

A

Closely spaced, finger-like projections
Structure derived from cytoskeletal elements
Located on most epithelial cells
Increase surface area

170
Q

stereocilia

A

(elongated microvilli)
Composed of cytoskeletal elements
Located on hair cells & on epididymal cells

functions
Functions
Sensory Transmission (balance & hearing)

Absorption (movement)

171
Q

cilia and function

A

(elongated, motile extension of cell)
Extremely complex structurally
Located in most organs
Movement of fluid, particles, & cells

172
Q

diffusion

A

Net movement of molecules or ions from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration (in other words, movement down a concentration gradient).
No outside energy is required.

173
Q

diffusion and ion concentration in the body

A

Dependent on differences in solute concentration.
Common between the inside and the outside of cells.
Also between intracellular compartments.

174
Q

Concentration of potassium is much _____ on inside of cell than outside of cell
Concentration of sodium is greater on ____ of cell than the inside of cell
Same with calcium (greater on outside of the cell) (comparing to calcium in the cytosol)

A

potassium greater inside than outside

sodium concentration and calcium concentration are greater on the outside of the cell than the inside

175
Q

passive transport

A

Net movement of molecules or ions from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration (in other words, movement down a concentration gradient/chemical gradient) across a membrane.
No outside energy is required.
Given enough time and absence of impediment to flow, a dynamic equilibrium will be reached.

176
Q

factors influencing the rate of net diffusion of a substance accross a membrane (increase or decrease effect on rate of net diffusion?)

A

increase in concentration gradient substance, increase of surface area membrane and increase of lipid solubility will increse the effect on rate of net diffusion

increase in molecular weight of the substance and increase in distance (thickness) will decrease the effect on rate of net diffusion