exam 1- cell physiology and neurophysiology Flashcards
1
Q
why do we develop illness or disease?
A
our body loses STABILITY via insults such as chemicals, toxins, bacteria, viruses, physical damages
2
Q
what is physiology
A
the study of how living organisms work (the function, the why/how). it is an integrated science
3
Q
closed loop mechanism components
A
variable, sensor, integrating center, effector
4
Q
variable
A
the factor that is being regulated. this can be body temp, for example. if it changes beyond the set point, or what is considered to be “normal,” your body will sense that. hence the next step being the sensor
5
Q
sensor
A
(sensory neuron). this is the receptor. the sensor senses changes in the variable
6
Q
afferent pathway
A
“INto INtegrating center” the afferent pathway goes from the sensor to the integrating center (control center)
7
Q
integrating center
A
aka the control center, central nervous system. the control center can make a decision to adjust your bodily function to bring the variable back to the set point. this decision becomes a COMMAND, hence command center
8
Q
efferent pathway
A
“Efferent Exiting” the efferent pathway goes from the control center to the effector
9
Q
effector
A
the workers. they will do everything necessary in response to the command regarding the variable. this is where the changes are made
10
Q
homeostasis
A
dynamic internal consistency
11
Q
negative feedback
A
negative feedback is employed to reinforce the parameters. if the variable gets too high, it will go back down (neg. feedback) to reinstate the balance within the parameter. If it gets too low, it will rise. neg feedback creates a response that moves the variable in the opposite direction
12
Q
is homeostatic negative feedback an open or closed loop?
A
closed, it keeps a variable toward the set point
13
Q
set point
A
the averaged mean over a long period
14
Q
dynamic consistency
A
know that the set point can be changed to the body’s needs. ex: fever
15
Q
what happens when negative feedback fails?
A
disease/pathological condition
16
Q
key component of non homeostatic feedback
A
amplification! if one baby in a room of 10 starts crying, they will all start crying. this is positive feedback
17
Q
what kind of loop does positive feedback have?
A
closed loop. activates systems rapidly and requires an exit to stop. here, the integrating center is simply saying “we need more” -there is no set point in mind here. we got a problem and we gotta solve it quick!
18
Q
examples of positive feedback
A
blood clotting, uterine contraction during childbirth
19
Q
blood clotting example of positive feedback
A
what happens first? there’s a break in your blood vessel wall. this is where the cycle of positive feedback begins. the body needs to maintain blood pressure and blood volume. this is maintained through negative feedback (it has a set point reference). Here, the wound needs to be closed. but how? clotting. clotting needs to be a rapid process, so this action is positive feedback. after the break in the vessel happens, clotting occurs with the help of platelets. the circular cycle continues until the platelets have enough team members to get the clotting done. the recruiting process will continue until then. clotting proceeds, then the cycle may end when finished clotting.
20
Q
what detects changes of a biological parameter such as skin temperature?
A
sensor
21
Q
what directly activates effectors?
A
efferent pathway
22
Q
what’s an example of altered set point of the homeostatic negative feedback?
A
fever
23
Q
what describes a bodily function that is controlled by negative feedback?
A
in a response to polyuria, you drink more water
24
Q
what describes a bodily function that is controlled by positive feedback?
A
bleeding from a cut activates the platelets until a plug is formed
25
T/F
if anatomy is about how the brain looks, physiology is about how the brain functions
true
26
T/F
hypothesis is a proven conclusion
false
27
T/F
the sensor detecting changes in a physiological parameter relays the information to the integrating center via the efferent pathway
false
28
T/F
positive feedback is an open loop homeostatic mechanism that amplifies the input signal
false
29
T/F
blood clotting is an example of a closed loop positive feedback that the body responds to bleeding
true
30
T/F
negative feedback is an open loop feedback mechanism that is used to maintain the internal stability
false
31
what's a stem cell
an undeclared cell. it can duplicate and change into many different cells
32
zygote
can make everything. zygote can turn to totipotent cell
33
totipotent cell
can turn into an embryo/placenta
34
pluripotent
can develop into any cell type of the body, but not embryo
35
pluripotent turns to multipotent, which can then turn into a limited number of cells with the same lineage
36
ectoderm line
ectoderm cells: nuerons, glial cells, epidermis, retina/lens, pigment cells
37
mesoderm line
mesoderm cells. connective tissue, skeletal muscles, smooth muscles, urogenital system, adipose tissue, blood cells
38
endoderm line
endoderm cells. pulmonary alveoli, thyroid gland, pancreatic cells
39
4 basic types of cells
nerve cell, muscle cell, epithelial cell, connective cell
40
nerve cell
brain, spinal cord, nerves
41
muscle cell
cardiac muscle, smooth muscle, skeletal muscle
42
epithelial tissue
lining of GI tract organs and other hollow organs, skin surface (epidermis)
43
connective tissue
fat and other soft padding tissue, bone, tendon
44
connective tissue matrix amount
extensive. it is the glue because it secretes extensive amount of matrix
45
epithelial matrix type
basement membrane
46
muscle cell unique feature
able to generate electrical signals, force, and movement
47
nerve cell unique feature
able to generate electrical signals
48
a cell
the smallest unit. basic unit of the body. 100 trillions of cells work together
49
a tissue
a group of the same cells
50
an organ
consists of multiple tissues that work together to perform a specific function
51
an organ system
consists of multiple organs that work together for a specific job
52
ten organ systems of our body
immune, digestive, cardiovascular, integumentary, respiratory, endocrine, reproductive, excretory, musculoskeletal, nervous
53
hyperplasia
increased reproduction rate of cells causes larger size in organ/tissue
54
hypertrophy
increase and growth of muscle cells
55
metaplasia
cells change form
56
dysplasia
abnormal cell type in a tissue (hearts and stars and circles)
57
nucleus
the site of DNA replication and transcription
58
nucleoli
dense structures which contain genes for forming the RNA associated with ribosomes
59
chromatin
threadlike material composed of DNA plus histone proteins
60
the nucleus is the site of
DNA duplication (for cell division), transcription (DNA to primary RNA), and RNA processing (primary RNA to mRNA)
61
what does helicase do
unwinds the DNA double helix. this is part of DNA replication in the nucleus
62
what does DNA polymerase do
makes a new strand utilizing template. this is part of DNA replication in the nucleus
63
transcription
nucleus is the place. RNA polymerase is needed. substitution from T in DNA sequence to U in RNA sequence
64
exons
coding sequence
65
introns
noncoding sequence
66
ribosome
site of translation. consists of 2 subunits: small (function: decoding mRNA codons), and large (function: formation of peptide bonds)
67
summary of gene expression
transcription occurs in the nucleus (DNA -> primary RNA -> mRNA)
translation occurs in the ribosome (mRNA -> protein)
68
where do free ribosomes function
the cytosol
69
what do membrane bound ribosomes do
synthesize proteins that are bound for organelles in the rough ER, golgi apparatus, lysosome, or plasma membrane
70
rough endoplasmic reticulum
with ribosomes. membrane proteins and secretory proteins
71
smooth endoplasmic reticulum
without ribosomes. lipid/steroid synthesis and calcium storage
72
golgi apparatus
site of modification, packaging, and trafficking of secretory protein or membrane proteins
73
mitochondria
site of ATP synthesis and cellular respiration
74
lysosome
garbage disposal for your cell. contains digestive enzymes. digests damaged cell organelles
75
peroxisome
detox center for your cell. produces hydrogen peroxide
76
cytoskeleton
for movement of organelles as well as shape/movement of a cell
77
microfilament
fine, thread-like protein fibers made of actin. gliding, contraction, cytokinesis
78
intermediate filament
provide tensile strength for the cell: keratin
79
microtubule
cylindrical tubes of tubulin. determines the cell shape and movement of cell organelles and vesicles
80
plasma membrane
site of cell boundary and transcellular movement of solutes and solvents
81
ICF
intracellular fluid. 2/3 of body's water
82
ISF
interstitial fluid
83
ECF
extracellular fluid. 1/3 of body's fluids. composed of interstitial fluid and plasma
84
major components of the plasma membrane
phospholipid bilayer and proteins
85
what do lipids do
repel water but pass small hydrophobic molecules like gases and steoids
86
is the head of a phospholipid hydrophobic or hydrophilic
hydrophilic
87
is the tail of a phospholipid hydrophobic or hydrophilic
hydrophobic
88
what do unsaturated fatty acid tails do
increase the membrane fluidity. this is what causes the bent bobby pin tail
89
integral membrane proteins
proteins that are embedded in the lipid bilayer. transmembrane proteins for channels, carriers, receptors. shoe lace that is going through the lace holes
90
peripheral proteins
proteins that are not embedded in the lipid bilayer. shoelace part that is tied, not bound to the lace holes
91
the embryonic stem cells that can differentiate into any cell type of the body but cannot make a placenta is an example of __________ cells
pluripotent
92
which cell secretes an extensive extracellular matrix?
connective cells
93
transcription occurs in the __________ whereas translation occurs in the ________
nucleus, ribosome
94
damaged cell organelles are digested in the _______ whereas modification of toxins occurs in the ________
lysosome, peroxisome
95
actin is a _________ whereas keratin is an _________
microfilament, intermediate filament
96
the plasma membrane is consisted of
phospholipid, proteins, cholesterol, carbohydrate
97
T/F
hematopoietic stem cells are pluripotent
false
98
T/F
connective tissue cell type secretes a large amount of extracellular matrix
true
99
T/F
upon DNA replication, there are one old DNA double strands and one new DNA double strands
false
100
T/F
transcription is the cellular process of making single-stranded RNA using a non-coding strand of DNA as a template
true
101
T/F
Translation occurs only in ribosomes that are attached to the endoplasmic reticulum
false
102
T/F
mitochondria is abundantly present in red blood cells which must deliver oxygen to other cells
false
103
T/F
damaged cellular organelles are digested/broken into recyclable components in peroxisome
false
104
T/F
Most of the body's water is found in the plasma
false
105
T/F
the plasma membrane is made of the phospholipid bilayer, proteins, cholesterol, and carbohydrates
true
106
T/F
the plasma membrane with a high percentage of polyunsaturated fatty acids would have a higher fluidity and thus easily pass gases
true
107
extracellular fluid is made up of
interstitial fluid and plasma
108
osmolarity
the total solute concentration
109
Na+ concentration is higher in the extracellular fluid or intracellular fluid?
extracellular. 142 mmol/l
110
K+ concentration is higher in the extracellular fluid or the intracellular fluid?
intracellular. 155 mmol/l
111
Cl- concentration is higher in the extracellular fluid or the intracellular fluid?
extracellular. 115 mmol/l
112
protein is negligible where?
interstitial fluid
113
where does osmolarity remain in ICF?
300 mOsM
114
1 liter solution of 2 moles of NaCl has a total osmolarity of ______ OsM
4
115
what does the plasma membrane separate?
intracellular fluid from extracellular fluid
116
passive transport of hydrophobic molecules by diffusion
small hydrophobic molecules. gases (oxygen, carbon dioxide). down the concentration gradient (high to low)
117
passive transport of hydrophilic (charged) ions
pass through integral proteins that form a channel. down the concentration gradient (high to low). Na+, K+, Ca++
118
facilitated diffusion
no energy required
119
large polar substances require carriers (revolving doors) to be attached to the bilayer as a gate
this is moved by facilitated diffusion down the concentration gradient
120
what is a carrier?
integral protein
121
characteristics of carrier-mediated transport
specificity, competition, saturation
122
specificity
only people in dress code can go through the revolving door
123
competition
everyone in a dress code competes for a spot in the revolving door
124
active movement
requires a carrier molecule and energy. against concentration gradient (low to high)
125
primary active transporters
can do it themselves. gave themselves an enzyme ATPase which gives them the energy to push against conc. gradient
126
primary active transporters can do what
pump Na+ and K+ in opposite directions
127
osmosis
water moving in and out of the cell
128
tonicity
cell maintains volume (doesn't change)
129
in order for osmosis to occur...
there must be a difference in solute concentration and the membrane must be selectively permeable to water
130
movement of solvent/water
passive movement by diffusion, no energy required
131
in the absence of the solute concentration gradient, water will _________ across the membrane
not move
132
in the presence of the solute concentration gradient, water will ________ across the membrane
move from the low solute concentration to the high solute concentration
133
how is osmolarity and tonicity related
water movement across the cell membrane would change the volume of the cell
134
hypotonic
less than 300 mOsm. a lower osmolarity than the inside of a cell. water will move into the cell. cell swells
135
isotonic
300 mOsm. the same osmolarity as the inside of the cell. no water movement, cell remains intact.
136
hypertonic
greater than 300 mOsm. a higher osmolality than the inside of a cell. water moves out of a cell. cell shrinks
137
exoctosis
intracellular -> extracellular
138
endycytosis
extracellular -> intracellular
139
passive transport includes
simple diffusion, ion channel, facilitated diffusion
140
what transports require energy
active and vesicle-mediated
141
passive diffusion
no energy required. simple diffusion through lipid layer or ion channels. facilitated diffusion through carriers
142
active transport
energy required. primary and secondary active transporters through carriers
143
movement of solvents/water
osmosis
144
our cell is surrounded by interstitial fluid with the osmolarity of _______
300 mOsm
145
diffusion of ions through a specific ion channel depends on
concentration gradient
146
a red blood cell would _____ in the solution of 200 mOsm because water would move ________ the red blood cell
burst, into
147
T/F
Na+ ion is at equilibrium at the same concentration across the cell membrane
false
148
T/F
osmolarity of the plasma remains at 300 mOsm
true
149
T/F
osmolarities between 1m glucose and 1m NaCl solutions are the same
false
150
T/F
diffusion is a passive movement of a molecule that occurs down its concentration gradient at the expense of energy expenditure
false
151
T/F
exocytosis is an active transport that requires energy
true
152
resting membrane potential
the inside of the cell compared to the outside of the cell at rest (-90 to -65 mV)
153
depolarization
the membrane potential becomes less negative, inside the cell becomes more positive
154
repolarization
return to the RMP
155
hyperpolarization
the membrane potential becomes more negative, inside the cell becomes more negative
156
how does de/re/hyper polarization happen?
change in permeability. ions go through ion channels
157
characteristics of ion channels
selectivity (sodium channels only allows sodium), gating (closed v open, inactivated or desensitized).
158
passive ion channels
leaky channels, always open. K+ leaking down its concentration gradient
159
voltage gated channels
open/close when a membrane potential change is detected. open + inactivate when membrane depolarizes. close when membrane repolarizes
160
chemically-gated ion channels
open when a ligand (neurotransmitter) binds to it
161
when does depolarization occur
when membrane permeability to Na+ (and/or Ca++) increases.
when more permeable to sodium
162
which 2 cell types generate action potentials
nervous cells and muscle cells
163
what do dendrites receive
incoming signals (graded potentials)
164
what does the amplitude of graded potentials depend on?
the strength of the stimulus
165
excitatory
depolarize
166
inhibitory
repolarize/hyperpolarize
167
temporal summation
2 excitatory potentials will summate if they arrive in the axon hillock within a short period of time
168
spatial summation
3 presynaptic potentials can summate to generate excitatory postsynaptic potential
169
EPSP
excitatory postsynaptic potential. depolarization
170
IPSP
inhibitory postsynaptic potential. repolarization or hyperpolarization
171
if there is an inhibitory signal....
spatial summation: inhibitory and excitatory signals may "cancel" and not get an AP
172
divergence
the "family tree" neuron. the AP that neuron 1 generates impacts the properties of following neurons
173
convergence
reverse family tree. multiple neurons down to one signal
174
summation is about
graded potentials in a cell
175
pathways are about
levels of signals and their amplifications
176
which cell types have action potentials?
neurons and muscle cells
177
during the upstroke of a neuronal action potential, the membrane permeability to _____ increases
Na+
178
which type of ion channel is important for the initial depolarization of the neuronal AP?
voltage gated Na+ channel
179
which does not decrease in strength as it moves away from the stimulus?
action potentials
180
a graded potential that causes a depolarization is
excitatory
181
the potential where an action potential is generated is called
threshold
182
the opening of which channel type would likely cause an inhibitory postsynaptic potential?
gated K+
183
absolute refractory period
membrane is incapable of producing another AP. vg Na+ channels are open or inactivated
184
relative refractory period
axon membrane can produce another AP but requires a stronger stimulus
185
nodes of ranvier
the spaces between myelin. contains vg na+ and k+ channels
186
saltatory conduction
salta/brinca= jump. jumping from node to node, fast rate of conduction
187
electrical synapse
gap junctions allow direct ionic current flow between cells. smooth and cardiac muscles, glial cells
188
chemical synapse
uses neurotransmitters released from presynaptic neuron that bind to receptor proteins on postsynaptic cell
189
ionotropic receptors
chemically gated ion channels. rapid, short acting
190
metabotropic receptors
g-protein coupled receptors. generate graded potentials. slow acting and long term effects
191
acetylcholine (Ach)
both exitatory and inhibitory
192
nicotinic Ach receptors
ionotropic, excitatory. found in: autonomic ganglia and skeletal muscle fibers
193
muscarinic Ach receptors
metabotropic, found in the plasma membrane of smooth and cardiac muscle cells
194
epinephrine
monoamine NT, peripheral nerves and adrenal medulla
195
norepinephrine
monoamine NT, central nervous system and peripheral nerves
196
serotonin
monoamine NT, CNS
197
dopamine
monoamine NT, CNS
198
glutamate and NMDA
amino acid NT, CNS, excitatory
199
glycine and GABA
amino acid NT, CNS, inhibitory
200
polypeptides
CCK (satiety), neuropeptide Y (appetite), substance P (pain), endorphins (analgesic). metabotropic receptors
201
gap junctions form
electrical synapse
202
organization of the nervous system
afferent pathway -> central nervous system -> efferent pathway
203
peripheral nervous system glial cells
schwann cells, satellite cells
204
central nervous system glial cells
astrocytes, microglia, oligodendrocytes, ependymal cells
205
schwann cells
wrap around axons to form myelination. (each myelination cloud is a schwann cell)
206
satellite cells
basic function: support
support neuron cell bodies with ganglia
207
oligodendrocytes
similar to schwann, form a myelin sheath around axons of CNS, except one oli can contribute to several myelination segments on dif axons
208
microglia
phagocytes that help get rid of foreign substances in the CNS
209
astrocytes
basic function: support
helps maintain a normal environment around neurons. maintains blood brain barrier. keeps blood out of cerebral spinal fluid
210
ependymal cells
line the cavities of the brain and spinal cord, make cerebrospinal fluid
211
chemoreceptors
chemical stimuli in env
212
photoreceptors
eye. rods and cones
213
thermoreceptors
temperature
214
mechanoreceptors
touch and pressure
215
nociceptors
pain
216
proprioceptors
body position
217
grey matter is comprised of
cell bodies, dendrites, synapses
218
white matter is comprised of
axons connecting different parts of grey matter
219
forebrain
thalamus, cortex, limbic system
220
thalamus
relay station channeling sensory information
221
cortex
control sensory processing, motor control, thought, memory
222
limbic system
basic emotions, drives, behaviors
223
hypothalamus
master controller of the endocrine system
224
amygdala
sensations of pleasure/fear
225
midbrain
reticular formation. filters sensory input, filters thoughts to avoid sensory overload.
226
hindbrain
cerebellum, medulla oblongata
227
cerebellum
coordinates movements, stores some motor memory
228
medulla oblongata
controls autonomic functions (respirations, cardiac, vomiting, swallowing)
229
sensory motor neurons
go into the central nervous system. part of the peripheral system
230
efferent motor pathways
exit the central nervous system. part of the peripheral system. 2 pathways: somatic (voluntary) and autonomic (involuntary)
231
somatic nervous system
carries signals from the CNS to the skeletal muscles (which serve as the effector) to control movement
232
autonomic nervous system
regulates smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands
233
sympathetic nervous system
fight or flight
234
parasympathetic nervous system
rest & digest
235
sympathetic nervous system effects what
dilates pupils, speeds heart rate, speeds breathing, inhibits digestion, produces sweaty palms
236
parasympathetic nervous system effects what
contracts pupils, slows heart rate, slows breathing, stimulates digestion, dries palms
237
vagus nerve
effector organs: heart, lungs, most visceral organs
238
sympathetic pathway:
CNS -> Ach leaves as neurotransmitter -> binds to nicotinic receptor -> autonomic ganglion -> norepinephrine as neurotransmitter -> binds to adrenergic receptor on the target tissue
239
parasympathetic pathway:
CNS -> Ach leaves as neurotransmitter -> binds to nicotinic receptor -> autonomic ganglion -> Ach leaves as neurotransmitter -> binds to muscarinic receptor on the target tissue
240
adrenal sympathetic pathway:
CNS -> Ach releases into adrenal medulla -> epinephrine gets released as neurotransmitter into blood stream -> goes everywhere
241
what does the sympathetic preganglionic neuron release
Ach
242
what does the parasympathetic preganglionic neuron release
Ach
243
what does Ach from the sympathetic pathway bind to
nicotinic receptor (ionotropic)
244
what does Ach from the parasympathetic pathway bind to
nicotinic receptor (ionotropic)
245
sympathetic postganglionic neuron releases
norepinephrine
246
parasympathetic postganglionic neuron releases
Ach
247
sympathetic norepinephrine binds to
adrenergic receptors (metabotropic)
248
parasympathetic Ach binds to
muscarinic receptors (metabotropic)
249
epinephrine is secreted from __________
the adrenal medulla
250
which type of Ach receptor is on the postganglionic neurons of parasympathetic and sympathetic nerves?
nicotinic
251
a receptor that is on skeletal muscle cells
nicotinic
