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fall 2022 > Exam 1-body membranes, skin, skin health and skeletal system > Flashcards

Exam 1-body membranes, skin, skin health and skeletal system Flashcards

1
Q

apical surface

A

an upper free surface exposed to the body exterior or the cavity of an internal organ

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2
Q

basal surface

A

The bottom layer of epithelial tissue that attaches to the basement membrane

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3
Q

endocrine glands

A

Glands of the endocrine system that release hormones into the bloodstream

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4
Q

exocrine glands

A

secrete chemical substances into ducts that lead either to other organs or out of the body

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5
Q

connective tissue and the 4 main types

A

Has lots of extracellular matrix, fewer cells
-Connective tissue proper
*Cartilage
*Bone
*Blood

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6
Q

cells of connective tissue

A

-cytes are mature cells of connective tissue,
-blasts are mitoctically active and secretory cells
–Also: fat cells, immune system cells (some phagocytes, mast cells

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7
Q

Cells of connective tissue proper

A

Fibroblasts
Adipocytes
Melanocytes
Macrophages/phagocytes
Mast cells
Lymphocytes

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8
Q

types of connective tissue proper

A

loose and dense

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9
Q

loose connective tissue

A

areolar, adipose, reticular (found in spleen)

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10
Q

Dense connective tissues (AKA fibrous connective tissues)

A

*Dense regular (regular collagen fibers)
*Dense irregular (more irregular collagen fibers)
*Elastic (elastin)

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11
Q

structure of dense connective tissue

A

-mainly collagen fibers; it is what is mostly visible
-ground sub. is the what medium that is behind the collagen and fibroblasts
-fibroblasts are the dark purple circles
dense CT is the deepest layer of skin and it is in thick skin (feet, hands)

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12
Q

exocrine glands

A

secrete chemical substances into ducts that lead either to other organs or out of the body

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13
Q

structure of dense connective tissue

A

mainly collagen fibers; it is what is mostly visible
-ground sub. is the what medium that is behind the collagen and fibroblasts
-fibroblasts are the dark purple circles
dense CT is the deepest layer of skin and it is in thick skin (feet, hands)

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14
Q

Cartilage

A

Avascular
•Receives nutrients from surrounding membrane

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15
Q

3 types of connective tissue

A

Hyaline, Elastic, Fibrocartilage

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16
Q

Have at least two primary tissue types

A

epithelium + connective tissue)

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17
Q

Three types of Covering and Lining Membranes

A

Cutaneous membranes (dry, surface)
•Mucous membranes (moist, line cavities open to the outside)
•Serous membranes (moist, in closed ventral body cavity)

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18
Q

Mucous membrane

A

on trachea and near lungs
has goblet cells
loose CT
mucous
Pseudostratified epithelium

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19
Q

Cutaneous membrane

A

on hands
has epidermis that is keratinized stratified squamous epithelium
has dermis
has dense and loose CT

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20
Q

serous membrane

A

Membrane that lines a cavity without an opening to the outside of the body

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21
Q

tissue damage gives rise to tissue repair
what are the types of tissue repair

A

fibrosis
regeneration

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22
Q

Regeneration

A

the regrowth of missing tissues or organs
- replace damaged tissue with original cells (in mouth)

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23
Q

Fibrosis

A

the thickening and scarring of connective tissue, usually as a result of injury
replace damaged tissue with scar tissue (connective tissue- fibroblasts)

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24
Q

example of regeneration

A

burn mouth: cells die, cells are replaced by epithelial cells

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25
Q

example of fibrosis

A

injure area with damaged cells, the cells die, cells are replaced with collagen fibers and fibroblasts

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26
Q

integumentary system

A

the largest organ of the body that forms a physical barrier between the external environment and the internal environment that it serves to protect and maintain; Consists of the skin, mucous membranes, hair, and nail

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27
Q

Two types of skin

A

thick = non-hairy skin = glabrous skin = acral
and
thin = hairy skin = non-glabrous skin

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28
Q

thick skin

A

found on sole of feet and palms of hands
-specialized for discriminative touch (texture/shape/grip), hair follicles
-has extra layer of cells compared to the thin skin

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29
Q

the skin is…

A

the cutaneous membrane of the body. it is the largest organ of the body

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30
Q

cutaneous membrane

A

skin- covers the body surface

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31
Q

functions of integumentary system

A
  1. Protection
  2. Body Temperature Regulation
  3. Cutaneous Sensation (touch)
  4. Metabolic Functions
  5. Blood Reservoir
  6. Excretion
  7. skin keeps In H20
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32
Q

How skin regulates body temperature

A

Hot: Sweating, the evaporation of the sweat cools off the skin
Cold: Shivering, the muscles and bone shake to generate heat

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33
Q

how skin is involved in metabolic functions

A

skin producing necessary materials (ex: vitamin D production)

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34
Q

Two distinct regions of the skin

A

Epidermis
•Epithelial tissue, avascular, superficial region
Dermis
•Fibrous connective tissue, vascularized, underlies epidermis (deep to epidermis)- mostly fibrous connective tissue

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35
Q

Hypodermis is not part of the skin

A

hypodermis- subcutaneous layer of deep to skin
mostly adipose tissue that absorbs shock & insulates
anchors skin to underlying structures (mostly muscles) not part of skin but shares some functions

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36
Q

Subcutaneous fluids

A

fluids placed in the hypodermis and slowly absorbed by the body

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37
Q

cutaneous membrane includes

A

Epidermis and dermis not the hypodermis

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38
Q

what cells are found in the epidermis

A

stratified squamous cells

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39
Q

epidermis is made of

A

keratinized stratified squamous epithelium

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40
Q

5 layers of skin

A
  1. stratum basale - deepest
  2. stratum spinosum
  3. stratum granulosum
  4. stratum lucidum
  5. stratum corneum - most superficial
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41
Q

4 major cells types of the epidermis

A

keratinocytes (skin cells that shed)
melanocytes (produce pigment; give skin color)
dendritic cells (part of immune system -> langerhans, came from the bone marrow, traveled through the blood)
Merkel (tactile) cells (sensation)

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42
Q

cells of the epidermis

A

keratinocytes, melanocytes, langerhans cells, merkel cells

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43
Q

Keratinocytes

A

The most abundant epidermal cells, function mainly to produce keratin.
make significant boundaries from bacteria, toxins, and from H20 being lost
and found: on top of the epidermis and below the stratum basale before the basal

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44
Q

Melanocytes

A

cells that produce melanin
produce pigments; helps protect cells from DNA damage
found: in the stratum basale

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45
Q

Merkel cells

A

touch receptors
found in stratum basale

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46
Q

dendritic cells

A

immune system
aka langerhans

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47
Q

stratum basale

A

also called the germinativum
firmly attached to dermis
stem cells are in the stratum basale

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48
Q

stem cells

A

unspecialized cells that are able to renew themselves for long periods of time by cell division

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49
Q

where is the stratum basale

A

Deepest part of the epidermis

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50
Q

Stratum Spinosum (Prickly Layer)

A

Several cell layers thick
Keratinocytes
abundant melanosomes
dendritic cells

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51
Q

stratum granulosum (granular layer)

A

-thin; four to six cell layers
- cells flatten
- nuclei and organelles disintegrate
- keratinization begins, becomes bag of keratin
- cells release glycolipids

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52
Q

Glycolipids

A

Membrane carbohydrates that are covalently bonded to lipids.

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53
Q

what is it that glycolipids do?

A

help to mold cells together
-hydrophobic layer so H20 does not leave or come in

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54
Q

stratum corneum

A

protective layer
-three-quarters of epidermal thickness
-most superficial layer; 20-30 layers of dead cells, essentially flat membranous sacs filled with kera

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55
Q

Melanosomes

A

A melanosome is an organelle found in animal cells and is the site for synthesis, storage and transport of melanin, the most common light-absorbing pigment

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56
Q

Melanocyte

A

mature melanin-forming cell, especially in the skin.

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57
Q

Where are keratinocytes found?

A

Epidermis

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58
Q

Where are melanocytes found?

A

stratum basale of epidermis

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59
Q

Where are dendritic cells found?

A

stratum spinosum

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60
Q

Where are tactile cells found?

A

basal layer of epidermis
stratum basale

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61
Q

Dermis contains

A

-nervous system components (neurons etc..)
-blood + lymph
-hair follicles
-sebaceous glands (oil glands), other sweat glands

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62
Q

dermis cells types

A

fibroblasts
macrophages
sometimes mast cells & white
blood cells (immune cells)

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63
Q

Dermis two layers

A

papillary- next to the epidermis; nipple shaped; has capillaries which has O2 that will diffuse to the epidermis
and
reticular- deep to the epidermis

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64
Q

structure of dermis

A

dermal papillae
capillaries
papillary layer
reticular layers
epidermis
dermal papillae
tactile corpuscles
collagen fibers
lamellated corpuscles
blood vessels

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65
Q

Pieces of skin (appendages)

A

epidermis
dermis
hypodermis (not part of skin)
sensory receptors
arrestor pili muscle
blood vessel
apipose tissue
sweat gland
sebaceous gland
hair

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66
Q

dermal papillae

A

-most contain capillary loops
-the dermal papillae in hairless skin contain meissner’s corpuscle (AKA tactile corpuscles)
-some contain pain receptors

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67
Q

Layers of the Dermis: Reticular Layer

A

Accounts for approximately 80% of the thickness of the skin
appendages of skin embedded into the reticular layer
innervated- nervous tissue components
reticular layers contains dense fibrous connective tissue- elastic fibers and collagen fibers

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68
Q

what do elastic fibers allow for

A

stretch and snap back to their original length

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69
Q

What does collagen provide?

A

flexibility and strength in resisting tension

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70
Q

sensory receptors in skin

A

cutaneous receptors, pain, touch, pressure, temperature

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71
Q

Mechanoreceptors

A

Receptors that respond to pressure, stretch, or vibration, and change the position of receptors in the skin

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72
Q

Where are mechanoreceptors found?

A

Skin- dermis

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73
Q

types of mechanoreceptors

A

Merkel cell fibers
-Tactile corpuscles (meissner’s corpuscle’s)
-Ruffini endings (bulbous corpuscles)
-Lamellated corpuscles

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74
Q

Types of receptors

A

thermoreceptors- sense temp.
prurireceptors- itch
nocioreceptors- pain
mechanoreceptors- touch

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75
Q

Meissner’s corpuscles

A

sensitive touch receptors in the dermis

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76
Q

Pacinian corpuscles

A

respond to deep pressure and vibration

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77
Q

three pigments that contribute to skin color

A

melanin- only pigment made in the skin, produced by melanocytes
carotene- diet
hemoglobin- blood

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78
Q

Appendages of the skin

A

Hair, hair root, nails, sweat glands, arrestor pili muscle and oil glands

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79
Q

Two types of sweat glands

A

eccrine and apocrine

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80
Q

what do sweat glands have

A

myoepithelial cells to help them contract

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81
Q

eccrine sweat glands

A

respond primarily to elevated body temperature; the evaporation of the sweat helps you to cool down
-abundant in palm, soles, forehead

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82
Q

apocrine sweat glands

A

Found in armpits, around nipples, and groin; Secrete products into hair follicles; Produce sticky, cloudy secretions; Break down and cause odors;

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83
Q

what is in the sweat in eccrine glands

A

99% water, salts, vitamin C, antibodies, dermicidin (microbe killing peptide)
they play the thermoregulation role in homeostasis

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84
Q

type of sweat in apocrine glands

A

viscous, milky or yellowish, odorless
but produces an odor when the bacteria (that comes at puberty) mixes with it

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85
Q

apocrine sweat glands location

A

axillary and anogenital areas, function at puberty
ducts empty into hair follicles or directly onto surface
their secretion is sweat + fatty substances + proteins

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86
Q

modified apocrine glands

A

ceruminous glands (ear wax) and mammary glands

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87
Q

sebaceous glands

A

found all over skin except palms and soles; develop from and empty into hair follicle; produce sebum; inactive until hormonal stimulation at puberty

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88
Q

hair

A

dead cells of hard keratin
everywhere except soles of feet, palms, lips, nipples,

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89
Q

function of hair

A

cushion and keep in heat

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90
Q

hair follicles are part of what

A

part dermis, part epidermis

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91
Q

hair bulb

A

Lowest part of a hair strand; the thickened, club-shaped structure that forms the lower part of the hair root.

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92
Q

hair follicle receptors

A

sensory nerve endings around each hair bulb; simulated by bending a hair; detect light touch

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93
Q

hair matrix

A

actively dividing area of the hair bulb that produces the hair

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94
Q

arrestor pili

A

tiny muscle fibers attached to the hair follicles that cause the hair to stand erect
Smoot muscle attached to hair

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95
Q

some functions of the integumentary system

A

sensation- mechanoreceptors
excretion- metabolic waste, thermal
blood reservoir- how to send more (hot temp.) or less (cold temp.) blood to the skin depending on temp
metabolic functions- vitamin D production
protection

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96
Q

Vitamin D production

A

UV light and cholesterol makes vitamin D precursor and this is modified in the liver and fully activates in the kidney

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97
Q

protective functions of integumentary system

A

physical barrier and protection against infection

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98
Q

what can and cannot get through the skin?- physical barrier

A

can- hydrophobic things
cannot- hydrophilic things
all due to phospholipid bilayer of cells

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99
Q

protection against infection of skin
what protects us from pathogenic bacteria infection?

A

lots of bacteria normally live on our skin
what protects us from pathogenic bacteria?- topical medicine in the form of a lipid to get though the skin

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100
Q

general phases of wound repair

A

1- blood + lymphocytes flow into the wound= brings in lots of signaling molecules, so does the damaged tissue
2- hemostasis- blood clotting + construction of blood vessels, clot is provisioned scaffold/structure
3- cells migrate in –> white blood cells, fibroblasts, tissue specific cells (ex: skin, have keratinocytes coming in)

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101
Q

Two types of tissue repair

A

regeneration and fibrosis

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102
Q

why is a wound a medical concern

A

because it can introduce bacteria and lead to infection so immune system is always patrolling

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103
Q

what does the immune system do for skin health

A

physical and chemical barriers
- innate immunity
- adaptive immunity

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104
Q

physical and chemical barriers of the immune system

A

cutaneous membrane (skin) = various epithelia, secretions

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105
Q

innate immunity

A

nonspecific response, but very quick - body recognizes foreigner

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106
Q

adaptive immunity

A

the ability to recognize and remember specific antigens and mount an attack on them- cells recognize type of pathogen

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107
Q

phases of wound repair

A

hemostasis, inflammation, proliferation, remodeling

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108
Q

The first line of defense

A

First line of defense

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109
Q

Physical and chemical barriers contribute to this first line of defense how?

A

producing mucus, defensins, pH, Only when a pathogen (illness-causing thing) gets by these initial defenses does it encounter biological barriers

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110
Q

What materials do not penetrate the skin?

A

H2O
Hydrophillic substances
charged particles (do not get thru plasma membrane)

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111
Q

What materials get through the barrier in limited amounts?

A

hydrophobic substances
heavy metals

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112
Q

hydrophobic substances
heavy metals

A

sweat and sebum from glands
skin cells

113
Q

sweat and sebum from glands
skin cells

A

dermicidin
sebum is antimicrobial
sweat is acidic

114
Q

From skin cells themselves:

A

defensin
*(Wounded skin also releases protective peptides that prevent some bacterial infection.)

115
Q

innate immunity cells

A

nonspecific response, but very quick - body recognizes foreigner

116
Q

adaptive immunity

A

the ability to recognize and remember specific antigens and mount an attack on them- cells recognize type of pathogen

117
Q

phases of wound repair

A

hemostasis, inflammation, proliferation, remodeling

118
Q

First line of defense

A

is the epithelial layers (barriers)

119
Q

Physical and chemical barriers contribute to this first line of defense how?

A

producing mucus, defensins, pH, Only when a pathogen (illness-causing thing) gets by these initial defenses does it encounter biological barriers

120
Q

innate immunity cells

A

macrophages (patrol in solid tissue like skin)
dendritic cells (patrol in solid tissue like skin)
neutrophils (patrol in blood stream)

121
Q

adaptive immunity cells

A

B and T cells

122
Q

Antigen

A

any protein or particle that can elicit an immune response

123
Q

Macrophages and Dendritic Cells patrol
patrol

A

solid tissue for foreign invaders

124
Q

what do Macrophages and Dendritic Cells do

A

These cells eat the invaders, destroying them. They send out signals that there is a foreign invader to additional immune system players on “billboards” called MHC molecules

125
Q

In the Epidermis: dendritic cells are

A

Antigen-Presenting Cells

126
Q

function of hair

A

cushion and keep in heat

127
Q

in the Dermis: Macrophages can

A

also, be APCs- antigen-presenting cells

128
Q

autoimmune disease

A

a disease in which the immune system attacks the organism’s own cells

129
Q

*Some autoimmune disorders of the skin:

A

*Vitiligo (mature melanocytes are destroyed)
*Psoriasis
*Atopic dermatitis (AKA eczema)
*Scleroderma (hardening of connective tissue

130
Q

*Most epithelial skin tumors are

A

benign (not cancerous) and do not metastasize (spread)

131
Q

Risk factors of skin cancer

A

Overexposure to UV radiation
•Frequent irritation of skin
•Genetic factors
•Previous chemical or thermal burns
•Potentially, viral infectionThree major types of cancer

132
Q

Three major types of skin cancer

A

Basal cell carcinoma
•Squamous cell carcinoma
•Melanoma
Very rare:
•Merkel cell (tactile cell)

133
Q

metastasize

A

the process by which cancer spreads from one place to another

134
Q

basal cell carcinoma (BCC)

A

malignant tumor of the basal layer of the epidermis; the most common type of skin cancer
•Least malignant; most common
•occurs in Stratum basale cells
•What do you know about these cells?- in the basal layer of the dermis
•proliferate and slowly invade dermis and hypodermis
•Cured by surgical excision (cutting out) in 99% of cases

135
Q

squamous cell carcinoma (SCC)

A

Second most common type
•According to the American Cancer Institute, ~680,000 cases diagnosed/year
•(incidences are also not required to be reported to cancer registries)
•Stratum spinosum keratinocytes
•What do you know about these cells?- these are cells in the stratum spinosum layer that produce keratin
•Usually scaly &/or reddened papule on scalp, ears, lower lip, and hands
•(Forms plaques that bleed or ulcerate)
•Does metastasize
•Good prognosis if treated by radiation therapy or removed surgically

136
Q

Melanoma

A

Most dangerous
•Highly metastatic and resistant to chemotherapy
•Estimated new cases and deaths from melanoma in the United States in (2022, from the National Cancer Institute): New cases: 99,780 (5.2% of all new cancer cases) Deaths: 7650 (1.3% of all cancer deaths)
•Melanocytes
Common treatment: wide surgical excision accompanied by immunotherapy

137
Q

immunotherapy

A

use of immune cells, antibodies, or vaccines to treat or prevent disease

138
Q

Merkel Cell (Tactile Cell) Carcinoma

A

Currently treatment options include excision, radiation, immunotherapy, chemotherapy
Merkel Cells originally thought to be origin of this cancer, but emerging evidence may suggest otherwise
Merkel Cell polyoma virus found in most (but not all) patients with disease (MCPyV)
Most people have been exposed to this by adulthood, but only causes symptoms in these rare Merkel Cell Carcinoma situations
UV light exposure and age

139
Q

Burns

A

Tissue damage caused by heat, electricity, radiation, certain chemicals
•Denatures proteins (“unfolds”)
•Kills cells

140
Q

what is the threat of burns

A

Dehydration and electrolyte imbalance
•Leads to renal (kidney) shutdown and circulatory shock (organs and tissues don’t receive enough blood)

141
Q

first- burns the epidermis and second- burns the epidermis and half of the dermis degree burns

A

Partial-thickness burns

142
Q

Full thickness burns

A

Third degree- burn the epidermis, dermis and hypodermis

143
Q

Cellulitis

A

Bacterial infection - deep dermis, subcutaneous tissue
•Organisms usually only identified in 15% of cases
•In those cases: Strep and Staph are common
•Life-threatening if not treated
•Systemic treatment

144
Q

MRSA

A

Bacterial infection, can be community or hospital-acquired
•Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus
•May lead to cellulitis
- keep safe when going to gyms and locker rooms, that is how they spread

145
Q

Ringworm (times corporsus)

A

Fungal infection (not a worm!)
•Related to athlete’s foot (tinea pedis), jock itch (tinea cruris)
•Zoonotic
•Topical or systemic treatment

146
Q

Anchoring junctions have these general components:

A

1)Transmembrane proteins that interact with each other or extracellular matrix
-2) Intracellular proteins that connect the transmembrane adhesion proteins to the cytoskeleton.
-3) Cytoskeleton components
eg. Intermediate filaments, or actin filaments

147
Q

the hemidesmosomes that anchors intermediate filaments in a cell to ECM is disrupted

A

Epidermolysis bullosa —> hemidesmosome problems

148
Q

Epidermolysis bullosa

A

derm- skin
lysis- breaking apart

149
Q

Kindler syndrome —> focal adhesion complex problems

A

action-linked cell-matrix adhesion anchors actin filaments in cell to ECM

150
Q

Epidermal replacement slows
•Decreased sebaceous gland activity
•Subcutaneous fat and elasticity decrease
•Decreased numbers of melanocytes and dendritic cells

A

What happens to skin as we age?

151
Q

oss-/ost-

A

Bone

152
Q

trophy

A

Enlargement

153
Q

Plasia

A

growth via new cells, mitosis

154
Q

-genesis

A

To form

155
Q

Chon-

A

cartilage

156
Q

Mesenchyme

A

embryonic connective tissue

157
Q

mesenchymal cells

A

multipotent stem cells arising from mesenchyme (daughter cells can become many things)

158
Q

Ossification

A

bone formation (hardening)

159
Q

Hydroxyapatite

A

hard body matrix
calcium-phosphate mineral

160
Q

How do we know what we know about Anatomy?

A

observational based
-compare lots of different subjects
-as tech. improves, so does our understanding, CAT, PET, MRIs

161
Q

How do we know what we know about physiology?

A

observation, non-invasively by urinalysis, blood chemistry, EKG, Sonography, animal-model studies (does not fully capture what is happening in humans), comparative studies between groups of people

162
Q

compact bone

A

osteon/haversian system
osteons

163
Q

Layer of bone tissue having many small spaces and found just inside the layer of compact bone.
looks like a sponge!

A

Spongy bone

164
Q

Function of skeletal system

A

support, protection, movement, fat storage, blood cell formation, mineral storage and acid-base homeostasis

165
Q

Protection of the skeletal system

A

skeleton protects vital organs such as the brain and also the heart and lungs are within the rib cage

166
Q

mineral storage and acid-base homeostasis of the skeletal system

A

Bone stores minerals such as Ca2+ & PO43-, which are necessary for electrolyte & acid-base balance
example of negative feedback (if the Ca+ goes up in the blood then it is absorbed by the bone, if the Ca+ goes down then bone releases it into the blood)

167
Q

blood cell formation of the skeletal system

A

red bone marrow is the site of blood cell formation
red and white blood cells
for kids: every bone has red bone but adults have red and yellow bone (which is in the medullary cavity)

168
Q

fat storage of the skeletal system

A

yellow bone marrow stores triglycerides

169
Q

movement of the skeletal system

A

muscles produce body movement via their attachment to bones

170
Q

support of the skeletal system

A

Supports weight of the body

171
Q

Bones are classified by

A

Shape

172
Q

bone is about as long as it is wide
ex: trapezium (carpal bone)

A

Short bone

173
Q

Long bone

A

bone is longer that it is wide
ex: humerus

174
Q

Flat bone

A

bone is broad, flat, and thin
ex: sternum

175
Q

Irregular bone

A

bones shape does not fit into other classes
ex: vertebrae

176
Q

Sesamoid bone

A

round, flat bones found within tendons (e.g., the patella)

177
Q

Bones are

A

living tissue
there are blood and nerve supplies- have cells that need O2

178
Q

coverings of the bone

A

Periosteum and endosteum

179
Q

periosteum

A

Lining around the bone

180
Q

Endosteum

A

Lining that lines the medullary cavity

181
Q

hyaline (articular) cartilage of the bone

A

on the part of the bone that connects to other parts of the bone

182
Q

perforating fibers

A

-fibers that connect periosteum to bone
-a matrix of connective tissue consisting of bundles of strong collagen fibres connecting periosteum to bone

183
Q

Nutrient Foramen

A

a small tunnel through the cortex of a long bone containing a nutrient artery which supplies the bone with nutrients
nutrients- nutrients in the form of blood (O2, Ca+)
foramen- opening

184
Q

Diaphysis (shaft)

A

Compact bone collar surrounds medullary (marrow) cavity
Medullary cavity in adults contains fat (yellow marrow)

185
Q

Epiphysis

A

Ends of a long bone

186
Q

Epiphyseal bands

A

growth bands

187
Q

Medullary cavity

A

the hollow part of bone that contains bone marrow

188
Q

Nutrient artery

A

large artery that enters compact bone near the middle of the diaphysis

189
Q

Yellow bone marrow

A

fatty tissue found in the medullary cavity of most adult long bones

190
Q

Red bone marrow

A

produces blood cells, found in spongy bone

191
Q

Compact bone definition

A

Hard, dense bone tissue that is beneath the outer membrane of a bone

192
Q

Where is bone marrow found

A

medullary cavity for yellow but on the epiphyses for red
can be red for kids and adults and yellow for only adults

193
Q

Foramen

A

Hole

194
Q

circumferential Lamellae (compact bone)

A

The lamellar; Layers of bone matrix that go all the way around the bone.

195
Q

Interstitial lamellae (compact bone)

A

fill the spaces between osteons. the circumferential lamellae (L) run around the circumference of the bone.

196
Q

Perforating canals

A

structures through which blood vessels enter and exit the bone shaft.

197
Q

Central canal

A

Canal running up and down, carrying blood vessels, is in the center of the osteon

198
Q

components of the periosteum

A

outer fibrous layer and inner cellular layer which contains osteoblasts

199
Q

Lacunae

A

small cavities that contain osteocytes

200
Q

collagen fibers in the bone

A

provides flexibility and strength;; remove it then the bone is brittle because it is not able to bend but if you only have it then the bone will only bend a lot and not remain stiff

201
Q

Channels in bone that contain blood vessels and nerves

A

What is in the Haversian canal?

202
Q

Subunits of spongy bone

A

Trabeculae

203
Q

What is in the trabeculae

A

lacunae with osteocytes
-canaliculi
-osteoblasts of the endosteum
-lamellae
-osteoclasts

204
Q

Composition of bone

A

organic and inorganic components

205
Q

organic components of bone (make up 1/3 of bone- 33% of bone by mass)

A

bone cells
osteoid
ground substance
collagen fibers

206
Q

Red bone marrow

A

what is in between the trabeculae

207
Q

Hydroxyapatites (mineral salts)

A

inorganic components of bone
(makes up 2/3 of bone- 65% of bone by mass)

208
Q

the calcium phosphate mineral of the bone is from

A

the blood
derived from blood by osteoblasts

209
Q

secreted from osteoblasts

A

Osteoid

210
Q

bones without organic matrix sUch as collagen, ground substance, osteoids, bone cells

A

brittle and shatters quickly
probably due to lack of collagen which provides strength

211
Q

Bones without inorganic material

A

cannot resist compression, so bends easily

212
Q

What are the bone cells

A

osteoblasts, osteocytes, osteoclasts

213
Q

Osteoblasts

A

bone forming cells

214
Q

Osteocytes

A

mature bone cells

215
Q

Osteoclasts

A

Bone-destroying cells
bone-resorbing cell

216
Q

Osteoblasts

A

are secretory cells; secrete unmineralized bone matrix (collagen and Ca2+binding proteins = osteoid); play role in mineralization, too.

217
Q

osteocalcin

A

What hormone do osteoblasts secrete

218
Q

Osteocytes maintain

A

bone matrix
Important to communicate stress info to osteoblasts and osteoclasts (for bone remodeling)

219
Q

Osteogeneic cells

A

bone stem cell that can become an osteoblast

220
Q

Where does bone genesis occur

A

in the periosteum

221
Q

Osteogenesis in the periosteum

A

1- osteogenic cells differentiating into osteoblasts
2- osteoblasts deposit bone until they are trapped-they become surrounded by bone matrix
3- osteoclasts secreting chemicals required for bone maintenance- they are suspended in the extracellular fluid in lacuna and trapped between the bone ECM

222
Q

Chondroblast

A

cartilage-forming cell

223
Q

Chondrocyte

A

mature cartilage cell (trapped in lacunae)

224
Q

The human skeleton starts out as cartilage
what type of cartilage?

A

Hyaline cartilage

225
Q

the skeleton, which is cartilage in babies, will be replaced by bone one of two ways:

A

endochondral ossification and intramembranous ossification

226
Q

Below the level of the skull bones (with a few skull bone exceptions), bones form by

A

endochondral ossification
(this is also used by long bones to achieve adult height)

227
Q

The skull (and also clavicles) form by ______________________.

A

intramembranous ossification

228
Q

Fetal primary ossification centers

A

At 12 weeks

229
Q

endochondral ossification steps

A
  1. Chondrocytes grow, die, leave cavities
  2. blood vessels grow, perichondrium cells -> osteoblasts, bone collar forms
  3. vessels penetrate, fibroblasts -> osteoblasts, spongy bone forms in primary ossification center
  4. osteoclasts erode trabeculae = medullary cavity, increases in length & diameter
  5. secondary ossification centers in epiphyses
  6. articular cartilage on ends, epiphyseal cartilage at metaphysis
230
Q

endochondral ossification

A

Process of transforming cartilage into bone.

231
Q

Epiphysis plate

A

the main site of longitudinal grepiphysis plates of long bonesowth of the long bones. At this site, cartilage is formed by the proliferation and hypertrophy of cells and synthesis of the typical extracellular matrix. The formed cartilage is then calcified, degraded, and replaced by osseous tissue.

232
Q

in young child the carpal bones

A

are not visible because ethyl have not completed endochondral ossification

233
Q

Structure of epiphyseal plate

A
  1. Ossification Zone
  2. Calcification Zone
  3. Hypertrophic Zone (enlarge)
  4. Growth Zone (division)
  5. Resting zone
234
Q

intramembrane ossification

A

Creation of bone from the periosteum

235
Q

why does a newborn have “soft spots” (fontanelles) on their head when they are born?

A

heads needs to be able to squeeze through the birth canal of the mother
- and also the brain needs space and flexibility of the skull in order to expand and grow- grow tthe most during the first 2 years of life

236
Q

Parts of newborn skull

A

-frontal suture
-ossification center
-posterior fontanelle
-parietal bone
-anterior fontanelle
-occipital bone
-sphenoidal fontanelle
-mastoid fontanelle
-temporal bone

237
Q
  1. Osteoblasts develop in the primary ossification center
  2. Osteoblasts secrete organic matrix, which calcifies
  3. Early spongy bone is formed
  4. Early compact bone is formed
A

process of intramembranous ossification

238
Q

Function of osteocytes

A

regulates mineral content in the matrix; aids in bone repair

239
Q

Bone remodeling

A

ongoing replacement of old bone tissue by new bone tissue

240
Q

Remodeling units

A

Osteoblasts & osteoclasts at periosteum and endosteum

241
Q

Stem cell Daughter cells may differentiate into osteoblasts.

A

Osteogenic cell role in bone remodeling

242
Q

osteoblast cell role in bone remodeling

A

Matrix-synthesizing
cell responsible for
bone growth

Osteoblasts are responsible for laying bone matrix

243
Q

osteoclast cell role in bone remodeling

A

-Bone-resorbing cell
-responsible for breaking down matrix
(they secrete enzymes and low pH material to digest collagen and dissolve calcium phosphate)

244
Q

bone resorption

A

the removal of minerals and collagen fibers from bone by osteoclasts

245
Q

Bone Deposition (Mineralization)

A

Osteoid laid down by osteoblasts.
•Hydroxyapetite may form spotaneously and catalyze new crystal formation
•Proteins and enzymes from osteoblasts needed for mineralization

246
Q

Bone resorption - demineralization

A

Osteoclasts secrete lysosomal enzymes (remember the lysosome?)
•They also secrete low acid solution to break apart matrix.
•Osteoclasts transfer broken down material to blood.
•When finished, they undergo apoptosis (remember apoptosis?)

247
Q

absolutely necessary for normal bone development!
•Mechanical stress determines where remodeling occurs

A

Mechanical stress is

248
Q

circumferential lamellae

A

Layers of bone matrix that go all the way around the osteon

249
Q

interstitial lamellae

A

fill the spaces between osteons

250
Q

what does collagen provide the bone

A

it is organic material that provides flexibility and strength for the bone; without it the bone will not be very strong or flexible so it will wqq

250
Q

what does collagen provide the bone

A

it is organic material that provides flexibility and strength for the bone; without it the bone will not be very strong or flexible so it will snap and break easily and will be brittle; will not be able to be flexy; the bone will be all ca+ so it will be very resistant to bending and snap very easily and be very very hard

251
Q

what does ca+ inorganic composite for the bone provide the bone

A

it provides resistance to compression and bending; if no ca+ , then the bone will be completely collagen it will be very bendy and flexible and will not resist the bending and compression, the bone will then be very soft and not hard

252
Q

the human skeleton starts out as cartilage

A

it is hyaline cartilage

253
Q

what two processes replace the hyaline cartilage?

A

endochondral ossification
intramembranous ossification

254
Q

below the level of the skull bones (with a few skull exceptions) bones form by

A

endochondral ossification, also used by long bone to get adult height

255
Q

the skull (and also clavicles) form by

A

intramembranous ossification

256
Q

where does intramembranous ossification happen

A

in the fontanelles of the baby skull; it is connective tissue (mostly mesenchymal cells)

257
Q

where does longitudinal growth of the bone occur

A

at the epiphyseal plates

258
Q

is longitudinal growth regulated by

A

growth hormone is a big player
also thyroid hormones (testosterones)

259
Q

how does longitudinal growth mimic endochondral oss.

A

organized array of proliferating and mineralizing chondrocytes lead bone formation and growth

260
Q

structure of epiphyseal plate

A

deepest- zone of reserve cartilage– where chondrocytes are

zone of proliferation– chondrocytes begin to undergo mitosis

zone of hypertrophy and maturation— the chondrocytes stop dividing (amitotic) and get bigger–chondrocytes that reach the next zone enlarge and mature

zone of calcification— chondrocytes begin to die and their matrix begins to calcify as calcium salt is deposited in their matrix–

zone of ossification– the chondrocytes is now turned into bone– calcified cartilage is replaced with bone

261
Q

direction of growth in which new bone is added+

A

up from the epiphyseal plate
so new bone will be added above the epiphyseal plate which is cartilage

262
Q

epiphyseal growth

A

The growth plate, is a thin layer of cartilage where the growth of long bones takes place.

263
Q

process of intramembranous oss.

A

1- the mesenchymal cells in the primary ossification cells begin to differentiate into osteoblasts

2- the osteoblasts in the primary ossification center begin to secrete organic matrix (osteoid, ground sub. + collagen), the blood vessels bring the calcium from the blood

3- the osteoblasts become osteocytes once they are encased in their secreted organic matrix that is now calcified due to the calcium

4- the osteoids surround blood vessels, forming trabecular/cancellous/spongy bone. These vessels will eventually form the red bone marrow.

5- Mesenchymal cells on the surface of the bone (around the primary ossification center) form a membrane called the periosteum.

6- Cells on the inner surface of the periosteum differentiate into osteoblasts and secrete osteoid parallel to that of the existing matrix, thus forming layers. These layers are collectively called the compact bone on towards the periosteum and the spongy bone towards the inner part

264
Q

mechanical stress for bones

A

-necessary for bone growth
- determines where remodeling occurs
- Wolff’s law: bone grows or remodels in response to demands placed on it

265
Q

vigorous exercise can strengthen bone

A

-added bone matrix counteracts added stress, so the more stress added, the more bone matrix developed which is strong

-bone, unlike cartilage, have a better blood supply- this is why it is worse to break a tendon

266
Q

endochondral oss. literal meaning

A

endo- inside

chondral- cartilage

oss.- bone

inside cartilage bone formation

267
Q

types of cartilage replaced by bone

A

hyaline

268
Q

where does endo. ossi. happen

A

all bones below the skull except the clavicle

269
Q

general process of endo. ossi.

A

1- start with cartilage

2- chondrocytes stop proliferating, get larger and die

3- osteoblasts secrete organic matrix and calcify the cartilage. the organic matrix will become the bone after the calcification is done

4- lots of endo. ossi. is finished by birth, but not all of it. the epiphyseal plates do not completely close (finish ossifying) until late teens or early 20s

270
Q

where do osteoblasts come from?

A

-at bone collar:: chondroblasts or osteogenic cells differentiate into osteoblasts

-at primary and secondary ossi. centers: osteoblasts may be brought in via the blood (along with other cells)

271
Q

intramembranous oss. literal meaning

A

bone formation inside the membrane
what membrane- the fontanelles of the infant head

272
Q

where does intramem. ossi happen

A

in th ebaby skull
in the fontanelles

273
Q

general process of intra. mem. ossi.

A

in the fontanelles tehre are mesenchymal cells that become osteoblasts that lay down matrix

Mesenchymal cells differentiate into osteoblasts and group into ossification centers
Osteoblasts become entrapped by the osteoid they secrete, transforming them to osteocytes
Trabecular bone and periosteum form
Cortical bone forms superficially to the trabecular bone
Blood vessels form the red marrow

274
Q

when do fontanelles close

A

do not become fully ossified until 2 years of age

275
Q

what do these types of bone formation have in common

A

they are both closely linked with angiogenesis or blood vessels formations.
some of the same growth factors (likehai growth factor VEGF) are necessary for both to occur

many of the same signals are likely used for both

276
Q

hair structure

A

medulla- middle or center
cortex- outer to the medulla
cuticle- very outer part

277
Q

hair structure part 2

A

melanocyte
hair papilla
matrix
cortex
cuticle
medulla
dermal root sheath
epithelial root sheath
hair follicle- a tube-like structure (pore) that surrounds the root and strand of a hair

fall 2022 (8 decks)

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