exam 1 Flashcards
what is a plant?
it’s in the kingdom plantae
Order of plants
- kingdom
- phylum
- class (groups of 3)
- order (pollinated by wind or self pollenated
- family (grasses)
- genus (Barlies)
- species
how do you write a species name?
- Genus- always capitalized
2. Species- lowercase either italicized or underlined
what does a cladogram represent
Evolutionary relationships
node
branching off in a cladogram
monophyletic group
a single clade and all its members
paraphyletic group
a clade and most of its members
polyphyletic group
members grouped together due to similar seeming characteristics derived independently
apomorphy
a unique characteristic that is RECENTLY derived in a lineage
synapomorphy
a shared characteristic that is RECENTLY derived in a lineage
plesiomorphy
an ancestral characteristic
symplesiopmorphy
a shared ancestral characteristic
what are the steps in the scientific method
- make an observation
- ask a question
- form a hypothesis
- test your hypothesis
properties of life
- cellular
- order
- energy use
- growth and development
- reproduction
- responsiveness to maintain homostasis
- adaptive evolution
levels of organization for cells and tissues
- cells
- tissues
- organs
- organ system
- organism
- population
- Community
- Ecosystem
- biosphere
prokaryotes vs. eukaryotes
- no nucleus vs. has a nucleus
- nucleoid (DNA) vs.
- no mmb- bound organelles vs. mmb- bound organelles
what are the cell wall layers?
- middle lamella - between cells pectin
- Primary cell wall- flexible, cellulose, hemicellulose glycoproteins
- secondary cell wall- strong, cellulose, thicker in some cells
plasmodesmata
- cytoplasmic pathways
- allow for intercellular communication
protoplasm
- everything within plasma mmb. Including the nucleus
Cytoplasm
- everything within plasma mmb. except the nucleus
microbodies
- contain enzymes
- peroxisomes- detox enzymes, toxic byproducts
- glyoxysome- converting lipids into sugar
microfilaments
small, structural, nautical movement, cytoplasmic streaming
vacuole
- storage
- controls pH, water pressure
- colors for petals
anthrocyanins
- water soluble pigments in vacuole
- blue, violets, reds
proplastid
stores lipid soluble pigments
chromoplast
- stores pigments
- carotenoids: carotenes (oranges), xanthophlls (yellows)
amyloplast
store starches
elaioplast
store lipids
lumen
open space within thylakoid
what are the 2 categories for tissues?
- apical meristems- lengthen of root or shoot
2. lableral meristem- widening
simple tissues
- one kind of cell in each tissue
- 3 types of simple tissue: parenchyma, collenchyma- thicker but irregular walls, sclerenchyma- THICKER
complex tissues
2 or more cell types
Xylem
Transport of water and dissolved minerals
What are the 3 types of cells in xylem
- Vessel elements: end to end, make vessels; perforation plates; dead at maturity; thick secondary wall; spirally reinforced within
- Trancheid: pits allow fluid movement plugged by torus; dead at maturity; irregular secondary walls
- Ray cells: allow lateral conduction; alive at maturity
Phloem
Moves sugars
What are two cell types in phloem
- Sieve tube members- alive at maturity
2. Companion cells- help sieve tube members live, have nuclei
Epidermis
- 1 cell thick
- fat layer of cut in which makes up the cuticle
- cuticle is topped with wax
Why is the cuticle topped with wax
Water proofing
What are root hairs function
-Increase water and mineral absorption
-
What is the function of trichomes
- reduce leaf temp
- reduce water loss
Periderm
- Replaces epidermis in woody plants
- dark
- dead at maturity
- includes cork cells and dead phloem
- bark secrets suberin
- presents gas exchange
Lenticels
Outgrowths of suberin-free parenchyma
Secretory tissues
- modified parenchyma
- depending on function, secrete: waste products, latex, sticky mucilage, nectar oils
Phylum magnoliophyta? What are the two classes
- Flowering plants
- class Liliopsida (lilies)
- class Magnoliopsida ( magnolias)
Conifers
Cone bearing plants
Herbaceous
Nonwoody, delicate
What is a baby root called
Radicle
What are root functions
- anchoring
- absorption of water and minerals
- storage of water and nutrients
- conduction
2 root system
- Taproot system: one big primary root and laterals
2. Fibrous root system: network of small roots
What are the 4 regions in a growing root?
From tip
- Root cap
- Region of cell division
- Region of elongation
- Region of maturation
Root cap?
- pushes into soil
- cells get sloughed off
- mucilage provides lubrication, protection, affects bacterial growth and soil contact
Region of cell division
- apical meristem: Lengthening matures into 3 meristem areas
What are the 3 Apical meristem areas
- Protoderm: outermost, creates epidermis
- Ground meristem- middle layer, create parenchyma tissue
- Procambium- inner most layer, crests inner vascular tissues
Region of elongation
- Just behind the region of cell division
- cells get longer
- ## pushes cap farther into soil
Region of maturation
- just behind region of elongation aka root hair zone
- cuticle May be secreted in mature roots
- function: very thin, only for defense
Cortex
Parenchyma
Food storage
Aerenchyma in aquatic and wetland plants
What happens as roots age
Casparian strips thicken and and impermeability
Pericycle
Lateral roots
Vascular cambium
Cork cambium
Monocot roots
- xylem makes a loose circle
- phloem cluster between circles
- pith- central parenchyma
Dicot and conifer roots
- xylem makes an “X”
- phloem fills in armpits
- cork cambium- cork in woody plants
- periderm- protective; replaces epidermis and cortex
Woody dicot and conifer roots
- vascular cambium- between xylem and phloem
- secondary xylem inside
- secondary phloem outside
What cells are food storage for roots
Parenchyma
Water storage roots
Typically in areas of of seasonal drought
Propagation roots
Shallow roots that sprout adventitious buds where shoots can be generated
Pneumatophores
“Snorkels” for underwater root to get oxygen
Aerial roots
- Develop above ground
- multiple functions: prop roots in corn help support stem, adventitious roots in ivy help it climb or become tree trunks
Contractile roots
- pull plant down in secessive seasons
- food depletion causes roots to contract
Buttress roots
- support large trees in shallow soil, reinforce anchoring
Hemiparasite
Uses host for water and soil nutrients; may also derive carbohydrates
Holoparasite
Uses host for water, soil nutrients, and carbohydrates
Endotrophic
Fungi directly enters parenchyma cells
Ectotrophic
Fungi enters spaces between cells
What are the soil horizons
O, A,B,C horizons
O horizon
Leaf litter
100% organic (humus)
A horizon
- topsoil, rich, dark, large organic component
B horizon
- subsoil, lighted in color, large inorganic component
C horizon
- parent material, rock
What are the 3 basic types of rock
- Igneous rock - volcanic origin
- Sedimentary rock- deposition; often layered, may have fossils
- Metamorphic rock- extreme temp and pressure
What does more rain do to soil
More weathering; produces well developed souls
What does too much rain do to soil?
- too much runoff ; soils wash away
What does freezing do to soil
- frost wedging; breaks apart large stones
What effect does living organisms have on soil
- decomposers make O horizon absorbable primary bacteria, 1/1000 of soil weight
- burrowing animals allow carbon dioxide to escape, create rich dark soils= humus
What effect does topography have on soils
- steep slopes = fast water= erodes soils
- standing water = slows down decomposers, reduces quality of soil
- moderate slopes are optimal
Sand
Drains quickly large spaces between particles and allows root gas exchange
Silt
- drains slower than Sand but faster than Clay moderate size spacing between particles
Clay
Absorbs and drain slowly, less empty space between particles, more time for water
Loam
Ideal nutrients and water constent; decreased erosion; tillable
What is the function of a stem?
- support transport photosynthesis climbing and storage
What are leaves attached to?
Nodes
What are the three patterns of attachment for leaves?
- Opposite
- Alternate
- Whorled
What is an axle
Upper leaf stem angle
What is a terminal bud
The one at the very tip
Auxiliary bud
Hey but on the axle
where are Stipules found
Where in monocots often paired in dicots
What do bud scales indicate
Stem Age
What do you leave scars indicate
Site of leaf loss
What is a bundle scar
Where are vascular tissue broke off
Abscission
Leaf drop
What does it mean if a plant is Evergreen
Keeps green leaves all year long and regular rate of abscission
Deciduous
The one time of year where abscission rates are higher (fall to winter)
What is a monocot stem tissue pattern
- no lateral meristems , epidermis covers sclerenchyma, xylem and phloem in scattered vascular bundles
What is a herbaceous dicots stem tissue pattern
- Not woody, No Cork cambium, vascular bundles create ring between pith and cortex
Vascular cambium
- Permanent growth region creates xylem (inner) and phloem (outer)
- May extend it between vascular bundles to create parenchyma
What is the tissue pattern for a woody dicot stem
Vascular cambium is a ring, lateral growth makes very little phloem (bark) makes lots of xylem (wood)
Spring xylem
- bigger than summer xylem
- Lots of vessel elements
Summer xylem
- Small then spring xylem
- Lots of tracheids, not made in fall and winter, ring size indicates rainfall total
Cork cambium
- cork cells filled with a suberin
- cork cells —-> bark
- causes epidermis death
- gas exchange via lenticels
Vascular rays
- Lateral conduction
- typically about one Cell thick
- phloem rays, xylem rays
Heartwood
- Old xylem in the center of wood - nonfunctional due to tyloses resins and tannins darken wood
Sapwood
- functional new xylem closer to your edges form as quickly as old
Softwood
- primary Tracheids no fibers
- pines
Hardwood
- Fibers present
- woody dicot
Bark
- all tissue outside the vascular cambium phloem included
- phloem long lived eventually crushed against Cork
- new phloem closest
Rhizomes
Horizontal underground stems
- reproductive storage organs with adventitious roots
Runners
- Horizontal above ground stems
- reproductive adventitious roots and buds
Tubers
Underground storage stems
Bulbs
- Large buds surrounded by fleshy leaves
- stem is very small with adventitious roots
Corns
Primarily stem adventitious roots, reduce number of papery leaves
Cladophylls
Flattened, leave like Stems auxiliary buds at nodes in Center
Tendrils
Spiral stems that help climb
Pinnately compound leafs
Multiple leaflets off rachis (petiole extension)
- if further division—-> bipinnately conpund
Palmately compound leafs
Handish
What are the leaf shapes
- Linear - linger wide, straightish
- ovate- broad near petiole narrow at tip
- lanceolate - tappers to a point
- lobed- looks like a flower
What are leaf margins?
Edges of leaf
Dentate leaf margins
Rectangular, point outward lobed
What do things look like in Monocots
Parallel
Dicot vein leafs options
- pinnately veined : many Bain of petiole
- dichotomously veined: no main vein, veins branch and branch
Cutin
- cover leaf
- water proof leaf
What is the epidermis made out of in a leaf
- pavement cells that lack chloroplast
Leucoplast function?
Nutrient storage
What can pavement cells be modified into
- trichomes: hairy, temp regulation, water loss
- glands : secrete substances
What are the functions of guard cells that have chloroplast
- Control gas exchange
2. Control movement of water from roots via regulation of stomata opening and closing
Bulliform cells
- monocots
- prevent water loss
- cell water depletes ——> cell folds up protecting upper epidermis
Mesophyll on leaf
- Area between top and bottom epidermis
- cloranchama
Upper parenchyma in mesophyll
- palisade mesophyll, tight columns
Lower parenchyma in mesophyll
Spongy mesophyll
Lots of air space
Shade leafs
- broader thinner
- few but larger chloroplasts
- darker (more chlorophyll)
- few trychomes
Sun leaves
- small thicker
- more chloroplast but smaller
- lighter (less chlorophyll)
- more trichomes
Arid regions leaves
- dry areas
- thicker, tough, leathery, hairy
- stomata in pits
- leaves reduced, absent, or modified for water storage
- light in color
Aquatic plant leaves
- mesophyll lacks layers
- usually have air spaces ( aerenchyma)
- less xylem then phloem
Tendrils
Spiral leaves that help plants climb
Spines
- sclerenchyma Replaces most leaf tissues
- reduces water loss
How can you tell if something is a true spine
Auxiliary buds
Thorns
Modified stems grow from axils
Prickles
Modified epidermis or cortex
Storage leaves a.k.a. succulently leaves
- Store water or carbohydrates
- large chloroplasts less parenchyma cells surrounded by chlorenchyma
Flower pot leaves
- mutualistic with ants
- hollow leaves create homes for ants
- ants deposit soil in leaves plants grow in roots
Window leaves
- Adapted for dry windy environments
- cone shaped leaf buried in sand
- Thick transparent epidermis waxy cuticle
Reproductive leaves
- Edges of leaves produce plantlets
- plantlets fall/get knocked off
Floral leaves
- brightly colored and look like petals
- designed to attract pollinators
Insect trapping leaves
- Photosynthetic
- Typically in soil is lacking nitrogen and nutrients
Pitcher plants
- leaves shaped like pitchers
- water deep down but sweet nectar above
- walls not climb able
Sundews
- leaves covered in extremely sensitive hair, hair tips covered in sticky adhesive fluid, hair/leaf curls up when in contact with insect
Venus’s-flytraps
- folded leaf with hinged midrib, when two years are touched, trap closes, enzymes digest insects
Bladderworts
-aquatic plants with airfield bladders, insect hits hairs, trap door closes, water rushes in, sucks insect in, very quick
In autumn why do the leaves change color
Alternate pigments revealed due to degrading of chlorophyll
How does abscission occur
- hormones from young age
- In order leaves abscission zone is formed at Petiole base
What are the two layers of a petiole base
- protective layer
- separation layer
Why does abscission occur
- leaves are too expensive with decreased light intensity
- Re-absorption of nutrients
- decreased water loss during dry season
Brownian movement
All molecules in Atoms are in constant motion
Diffusion
Movement of Molecules down a concentration gradient from area of high concentration to an area of low concentration; no energy required
Osmosis
Diffusion of water through a selectively permeable membrane
Solvent
Liquid part
Solutes
Dissolved particles
Hypotonic solution
Has a relatively lower concentration of solutes
Hypertonic solution
Has a relatively higher concentration of solute‘s
Isotonic
Have approximately the same concentration of solutes
Turgor pressure
Pressure against the wall primarily due to water inside the vacuole
Plasmolysis
When a cell loses water pressure
Imbibition
- Absorption of water and subsequent swelling of cells/tissue
- occurs due to presence of large polar molecules
Active transport
- uses energy
- allows plants to retain necessary molecules and maintain osmotic potentials
- Photosynthesis uses energy to move protons against gradient
Transpiration
- Evaporation of water through stomata
- provides evaporative cooling
- moves water and minerals from root to leaves
What is the old theory on water getting from roots to the tip of a stem
Cohesion and adhesion
Cohesion
Water sticks to itself
Adhesion
Water sticks to other things
What is the new theory on water getting from route to the tip of a stem
Cohesion tension theory
Macronutrients
- 0.5%- 3% of a plants dry weight
- N,P,K,Ca and leads Mg, S
Nitrogen
- proteins, nucleic acid‘s, chlorophyll
- lack causes all this leads to turn pale
Potassium
- coenzymes
- lack causes yellowing of leaves, starting at margins
Calcium
- middle lamellae
- lack causes death of terminal buds, leaves are hooked and/or withered
Phosphorus
- ATP, Calvin cycle
- lack causes stunted growth, purpleish leaves
Magnesium
- heart of chlorophyll
- lack causes yellow spots, sudden dead spots, curled leave edges
Sulfur
- some amino acids
- lack causes pale leaves, veins often light in color
