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Animal Physiology > Exam 1 > Flashcards

Exam 1 Flashcards

1
Q

Heroine inhibits _______.

A

GABA

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2
Q

__________ inhibits dopamine.

A

GABA

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3
Q

Where in the brain is dopamine released?

A

The reward center

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4
Q

______ are groups of cells within the brain.

A

Centers

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5
Q

Heroine turns on the ____ center and turns off the _____ center.

A

euphoric

respiratory

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6
Q

What does refactory mean? Why is it a problem with heroine usage?

A
  • with time, a drug will lose its effectiveness
  • The euphoric and respiratory centers do not become refactory at the same rate, so an addict will take a higher dosage to get the high, but it is too much for the respiratory system and so that system will shut down
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7
Q

What is anatomy?

A

The study of form and structure

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8
Q

What is histology?

A

the study of form and structure of cells

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9
Q

What is gross anatomy?

A

The study of structure that can be seen with the naked eye

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10
Q

______ is the study of function.

A

Physiology

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11
Q

What is a lumen?

A

An open, hollow space in the body

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12
Q

_______ cells are cells that contact the lumen.

A

Luminal

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13
Q

What is the median plane?

A

Divides the body into equal right and left halves

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14
Q

What is a sagittal plane?

A

Any plane parallel to the median plane

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15
Q

What is the transverse plane?

A

Divides the body into cranial and caudal segments

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16
Q

What is the frontal plane?

A

Divides the body into ventral and dorsal segments

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17
Q

What direction is lateral?

A

Away from the median plane

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18
Q

What direction is medial?

A

Toward/Close to the median plane

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19
Q

What direction is dorsal?

A

Toward/beyond the backbone

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20
Q

What direction is ventral?

A

Away from the backbone and toward the abdominal wall

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21
Q

What direction are deep and superficial?

A

Deep indicates proximity to the center. Superficial indicates proximity to the surface

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22
Q

What direction is proximal?

A

Close to a given part, usually the vertebral column

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23
Q

What direction is distal?

A

Farther from the vertebral column

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24
Q

What direction is caudal?

A

Toward the tail

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25
Q

What direction is cranial?

A

Toward the head

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26
Q

What direction is rostral?

A

Toward the nose

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27
Q

What direction is cortical?

A

Toward the outside

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28
Q

What direction is medullary?

A

Toward the center

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29
Q

What is the organization of the body?

A

Cells –> tissues –> organs –> Systems –>

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30
Q

What are tissues?

A

Specialized cells with a common function

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31
Q

What are organs?

A

Specialized tissues with a common function

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32
Q

______ are groups of specialized organs with a common function.

A

Systems

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33
Q

What is the name of study of the skeletal system and what are the chief structures?

A
  • Osteology

- Bones

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34
Q

What is the name of the study of the articular system and what are the chief structures?

A

Arthrology

-Joints

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35
Q

What is the name of the study of the muscular system and what are the chief structures?

A
  • Myology

- Muscles

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36
Q

What is the name of the study of the digestive system and what are the chief structures?

A
  • Splanchnology

- stomach/intestines

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37
Q

What is the name of the study of the respiratory system and what are the chief structures?

A
  • Splanchnology

- Lungs/airways

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38
Q

What is the name of the study of the urinary system and what are the chief structures?

A
  • Splanchnology

- Kidneys and bladder

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39
Q

What is the name of the study of the reproductive system and what are the main structures?

A
  • Splanchnology

- Ovaries, testes

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40
Q

What is the name of the study of the endocrine system and what are the chief structures?

A
  • Endocrinology

- Ductless glands

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41
Q

What is the name of the study of the circulatory system and what are the chief structures?

A
  • Cardiology

- Heart/vessels

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42
Q

What is the name of the study of the sensory system and what are the chief structures?

A
  • Esthesiology

- Eye/ear

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43
Q

What are the four kinds of tissues?

A
  1. Epithelium
  2. Connective
  3. Nervous
  4. Muscular
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44
Q

What does connective tissue include?

A
  • Bone
  • fat
  • blood
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45
Q

True or False: The four kinds of tissues are found in every body system.

A

True

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46
Q

True or False: The systems develop at the same time in the embryo and throughout life.

A

False, they do not all develop at the same time

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47
Q

What are the first two and last two bodily systems to develop?

A

First: Integument, nervous
Last: Reproductive, adipose

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48
Q

______ ____ means that there are different rates of growth in associated tissues or structures.

A

Differential growth

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49
Q

Because systems develop at different rates, _______ develop at different times as well.

A

Tissues

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50
Q

What are the three germ Layers? Which is the most superficial? Which is the most deep?

A
  • Ectoderm (most superficial)
  • Mesoderm
  • Endoderm (Most deep)
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51
Q

______ is synonymous to entoderm and gives rise to what?

A
  • Endoderm

- Tissues and organs

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52
Q

What is the mass of cells at the top of a blastocyst called?

A

The inner cell mass

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53
Q

As _____ cells move through the primitive streak, they differentiate into _____cells.

A
  • Ectoderm

- Mesoderm

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54
Q

What are the three germ layers of the blastocyst?

A

Mesoderm, ectoderm, endoderm

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55
Q

Which germ layer forms first? Which forms last?

A

First: Ectoderm
Last: Mesoderm

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56
Q

What germ layer forms the mesoderm?

A

Ectoderm

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57
Q

Ectoderm moves through the _____ ____ and differentiates into mesoderm.

A

The primitive streak

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58
Q

What is the tissue fate of the ectoderm?

A

Epithelium and nervous tissue

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59
Q

What is the tissue fate of the mesoderm?

A

Muscular and connective tissue

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60
Q

What is the tissue fate of the endoderm?

A

Epithelium

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61
Q

What two germ layers can give rise to epithelial tissue? This tissue is sometimes _____ in these germ layers.

A
  • Ectoderm and Endoderm

- Secretory

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62
Q

Epithelia can invaginate and get pinched off to form ______.

A

Glands

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63
Q

______ are old epithelial cells that become secretory. When epithelial cells are secretory, they are ______.

A
  • Glands

- Glandular

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64
Q

How much of a sharks weight does the liver make up?

A

1/3

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65
Q

_____ are from secretory epithelium.

A

Glands

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66
Q

_____ glands are duct glands.

A

Exocrine

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67
Q

______ glands are ductless glands.

A

Endocrine

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68
Q

Which germ layer would become the digestive glands?

A

Endoderm

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69
Q

As a blastocyst ages, what three things (in order) must happen?

A
  1. Neural Tube Forms
  2. Mesoderm Splits laterally
  3. Bulbous enlargements lateral to the neural tube
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70
Q

Initially the embryonic disk helps make up the ectoderm of the blastocyst, but eventually what does the disk form and what is left?

A

The disk eventually forms the neural tube, and just ectoderm is left on the outside becoming skin

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71
Q

What is Spina Bifida?

A

Failure of the neural arch formation that can result in a discolored spot or protruding nervous tissue. Failure of the neural tube to close caudally

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72
Q

How can Spina Bifida be diagnosed?

A

Through amniocentesis- put a needle in the amnion and draw fluid to test for alpha fetal protein. If levels are high, the baby will likely have spinal bifida.

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73
Q

The ______is the space that forms when the mesoderm splits.

A

coelom

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74
Q

The outside of the neural tube in the blastocyste is lined by what kind of cells?

A

Somites

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75
Q

There are bulbs on the right and left of the neural tube made of ________.

A

Somites

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76
Q

The neural tube will become the _____ _____.

A

Dorsal Cavity

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77
Q

What germ layer do somites come from? What do they become in the adult?

A
  • Mesoderm

- Vertebrae

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78
Q

What is the splanchnopleure?

A

-Mesoderm that lies close to the endoderm

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79
Q

True or False: The coelom remains and will become cavities

A

True

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80
Q

Superficial mesoderm becomes ______. ______ mesoderm is deep and will become ______ muscle.

A
  • Skeletal muscle
  • Splanchnopleure
  • Smooth
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81
Q

What three body cavities come from the coelom?

A

Peritoneal cavity, pelvis cavity, and thoracic cavity

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82
Q

What cavity is not from the coelom? Where does it come from?

A

Dorsal Cavity

-Comes from the rolling in of the neural tubeA

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83
Q

The peritoneal cavity is more commonly known as the _____ cavity.

A

Abdominal

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84
Q

A sac has two edges. What are they? Which is the outer edge and which is the deeper edge?

A
  • Visceral Edge (deeper)

- Parietal Edge (outer)

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85
Q

The visceral edge of a sac will become ______ muscle, while the parietal edge will become ______ muscle.

A
  • smooth

- skeletal

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86
Q

What are the three body sacs?

A
  1. Peritoneum/Peritoneal
  2. Pericardial
  3. Pleural
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87
Q

The special epithelium that develops inside the coelomic cavity is the ________. What do these cells make up?

A
  • Mesothelial

- These cells make up the wall of adult sacs

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88
Q

The mesoderm gives rise to muscular and connective tissue, as well as _____. Therefore, all germ layers give rise to ______ tissue.

A
  • Mesothelium

- Epithelial

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89
Q

What is the order of the layering of tissues in the body?

A

Epithelial –> Connective –> muscle –> Connective –> epithelial (Space) Epithelial –> connective –> muscle –> connective –> epithelial

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90
Q

In the case of the intestinal lumen, what is the order of layering of tissues in the body?

A

Skin (epithelial) –> Subcutaneous fascia (connective) –> skeletal (muscle) –> Transverse Fascia (connective) –> Mesothelium (epithelial) (Space: Paritoneum/abdominal cavity) Serosa (epithelial) –> submucosa (connective) –> muscle –> Submucosa (connective) –> Mucosal Membrane (epithelial)

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91
Q

What is the outermost layer of the GIT called? What part of the peritoneum is it?

A
  • Serosa

- Visceral

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92
Q

Epithelium in the glands is called the ______epithelium.

A

Glandular

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93
Q

What two layers can the ectoderm be further divided into?

A

The surface ectoderm (integument) and the neuroectoderm (nervous system/sensory)

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94
Q

Part of the integument system, and the circulatory, muscular, skeletal, reproductive (gonads) systems, all came from what germ layer?

A

Mesoderm

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95
Q

The respiratory system, reproductive tract, urinary tract, and digestive system all came from what germ layer?

A

Endoerm

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96
Q

True or False: gonads of the reproductive system came from the endoderm, while the reproductive tract itself came from the mesoderm.

A

False, gonads from mesoderm, and tract from endoderm

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97
Q

The ______ gives rise to the digestive system.

A

Splanchnopleure

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98
Q

The digestive system is a combination of ______ and ____ germ layers.

A

Mesoderm

Endoderm

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99
Q

True or False: Nerves extend through all layers of the body.

A

True

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100
Q

The white line down the center of the abdomen is the ____ _____, and it borders the ____ _____.

A
  • Linea Alba

- Transverse Fascia

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101
Q

What are the three kinds of specialized epithelium?

A
  1. Mesothelium
  2. Endothelium
  3. Ependymal Cells
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102
Q

What specialized epithelial cells line blood vessels? What kind line the dorsal cavity?

A
  • Blood vessels: endothelium

- Dorsal Cavity: Ependymal cells

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103
Q

Ependymal cells line the dorsal cavity in the ______.

A

Brain

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104
Q

List five characteristics of epithelial cells.

A
  1. Interface with the outside and inside (lumenal) environments
  2. Form tight junctions with neighboring cells
  3. Sit on a basement membrane/basal lamina
  4. Innervated
  5. Avascular
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105
Q

Epithelial cells are _____ in shape, sit on a ____ ____, and have ______ .

A
  • Columnar
  • Basal lamina
  • Polarity
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106
Q

90% of cancers that affect us occur in what tissues? Why?

A
  • Epithelial

- They are exposed to noxious agents more than other body tissues and are fast-growing and rapidly-dividing

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107
Q

Skin is made up of what two layers?

A

Dermis and epidermis

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108
Q

The epidermis is composed of _____ ____ epithelium.

A

Stratified squamous

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109
Q

How many layers make up the epidermis? What is the sixth most deep layer?

A
  • 5

- Dermis

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110
Q

The ____ ____ separates the dermis from the epidermis.

A

Basal Lamina

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111
Q

What is the layering of cell shapes in the epidermis?

A

Columnar are the deepest cells, then cuboidal, then squamous

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112
Q

If there is one layer of epithelial cells, it is ______ epithelium. If there are multiple layers, it is ______.

A
  • Simple

- Striated

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113
Q

What layer is underneath the dermis?

A

Hypodermis

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114
Q

The epidermis is from the _____ germ layer, while the dermis is from the ______.

A
  • Ectoderm

- Mesoderm

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115
Q

Both the dermis and hypodermis are _____ tissue. However, the dermis is part of the skin, while the hypodermis is ______ _____.

A
  • Connective

- Subcutaneous fascia

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116
Q

True or False: Skin has three of the four types of tissue- epithelial, connective, and nervous.

A

False, muscle is also present in the erector pili

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117
Q

What kind of tissue can become secretory?

A

Epithelial

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118
Q

Epithelial tissue is avascular, meaning what?

A

Capillaries stop at the basal lamina

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119
Q

Each layer of skin is called a ______.

A

Stratum

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120
Q

What is the most superficial and most deep layer of skin?

A

Most superficial: stratum corneum

Most deep: Stratum basale

121
Q

What skin layer does this describe: dead cells with a hard protein envelope; the cell contain keratin and are surrounded by lipids.

A

Stratum corneum

122
Q

What skin layer does this describe?: Cells divide by mitosis and some of the newly formed cells become cells of the more superficial strata.

A

Stratum Basale

123
Q

What epithelial layer is the most dangerous when cancerous? Why? What shape are these cells?

A
  • Stratum basale
  • They are actively dividing
  • columnar
124
Q

What part of the body has the thickest stratum corneum? Thinnest?

A
  • Thick: sole of feet

- Thin: eyelid

125
Q

As epithelial cells grow toward the surface, they begin to accumulate ______ and are called ______. Then they harden, and are called _______.

A
  • Keratin
  • Keratinocytes
  • Corneocytes
126
Q

A _______ is a hard keratinocyte.

A

Corneocyte

127
Q

What five kinds of cells are found in the epidermis? Which ones are non-epithelial?

A
  1. Keratinocytes
  2. Corneocytes
  3. Melanocytes (NE)
  4. Merkel Cells (NE)
  5. Langerhans Cells (NE)
128
Q

Keratinocytes differentiate to corneocytes to form the ____ _____.

A

Stratum corneum

129
Q

What do melanocytes do?

A

Melanocytes produce melanin in the stratum basale. They then transfer the melanin to keratinocytes so that melanin accumulates near the cells apical surfaes to shield the cell nucleus containing DNA from UV damage.

130
Q

What do Merkel cells do?

A

Merkel cells form a merkel disc and are associated with sensory nerve endings.

131
Q

What do Langerhan’s cells do?

A

Langerhan’s cells form in bone marrow and migrate to the epidermis to function as macrophages for the immune system.

132
Q

Langerhan’s cells are epidermal _______ cells.

A

dendritic

133
Q

Merkel cells are a type of _______ cell for nerve endings.

A

Sensory

134
Q

In the dermis are nipple shaped projections called ______. These form fingerprints.

A

Papilla

135
Q

The dermis makes up what percentage of skin?

A

80%

136
Q

What are the two parts of the epidermis?

A
  • Loose irregular connective tissue (superficial)

- Dense irregular connective tissue (Deep)

137
Q

Connective tissue is composed of what kinds of cells?

A
  • Collagen
  • Elastic fibers
  • Fibroblasts
138
Q

In what layer of the skin are capillaries found? How are they ordered?

A
  • Hypodermis

- Layered horizontally in a plexus

139
Q

Vasoconstriction causes the lumen of blood vessels to get ______. Vasodialation causes it to get _____. Which of these does cocaine usage induce?

A
  • smaller
  • Bigger
  • Vasoconstriction
140
Q

The _____ system is the organ system that protects the body from damage, comprising the skin and its appendages (including hair, scales, feathers, and nails).

A

Integumetnary

141
Q

The _______system provides for vitamin D synthesis.

A

Integumentary

142
Q

What percentage of skin is composed of water?

A

64%

143
Q

True or false: As you age, the percent of water in the human body increases.

A

False

144
Q

_____ glands are specialized areas of skin that allow animals to communicate.

A

Scent

145
Q

What are three structures that derived initially from skin?

A

Hooves, teeth, Horn

146
Q

Chesnuts on horse are located _____ to the knee on the front leg and _____ to the hock on the back leg. They are the reminant of the _____digit on the horse.

A
  • Proximal
  • Distal
  • first
147
Q

A horse stands on the _____ digit. The 2nd and 4th digit remnants are the _____ bones.

A
  • third

- splint

148
Q

The ______ ______ is made of fibrous/fatty material that acts as a cushion for the coffin bone.

A

Digital cushion

149
Q

______ refers to the front leg of a horse. It is the caudal side of the front leg, distal to the knee.

A

Palmar

150
Q

______ refers to the hind leg. It is the caudal side of the hind leg, distal to the knee.

A

Plantar

151
Q

What are the three joints, ordered most cranial to most caudal, in a horse? Which has the least movement?

A
  • Fetlock, pastern, coffin

- The pastern joint has the least movement

152
Q

When a horse is galloping or jumping, the _____ joint almost touches the ground.

A

fetlock

153
Q

_____ of bones means abnormal growth.

A

Sparring

154
Q

The _____ of the horse is very locked in and strong so that the ______ bone doesn’t wedge through since the stress is placed here.

A
  • Toe

- coffin

155
Q

The ____ ____keeps the coffin bone in place and prevents it from pivoting.

A

Dorsal notch

156
Q

The ____ ____ is a series of ligaments that lock joints in place and are how a horse sleeps standing up.

A

Stay Apparatus

157
Q

How are capillaries layered in the skin? What layer are they found in?

A

-Layered horizontally in a plexus

158
Q

What parts of the horse hoof are the first to touch the ground?

A

-The frog and the heel

159
Q

The _____ makes up the majority of the surface area of the horse hoof.

A

Frog

160
Q

The _____ of the horse hoof has no give, while the ____ has give and is a little elastic.

A
  • Wall

- Frog

161
Q

The ____ and ___ squeeze the digital cushion laterally when pressure is applied.

A
  • wall

- Frog

162
Q

What contains the frog?

A

The lateral cushion and hoof wall

163
Q

What two changes happen to the epidermis to become the hoof?

A
  1. Keratinization

2. Cornification

164
Q

In becoming the hoof, what happens to the dermis?

A

It becomes vascularized with capillaries and is dark and red. This becomes the corium filled with capillaries.

165
Q

What part of the epidermis becomes the hoof wall? What must happen for it to become the hoof wall? When does this happen?

A
  • The Stratum corneum becomes the hoof wall
  • It must become keratinized and cornified
  • The dermis becomes a corium, then the epidermis becomes a hoof
166
Q

_____ forms in the embryo, inducing the epidermis to change to the hoof wall.

A

Corium

167
Q

The corium has primary and secondary _____. The lamina are called the ____ _____.

A
  • lamina

- White line

168
Q

The ______ sits all around the base and sides of the bone in the hoof. It cushions between two hard surfaces.

A

Corium

169
Q

The corium has an inner edge that is _____ and an outer edge with _____ projections. What do these projections do?

A
  • smooth
  • lamina
  • Extend all the way through the hoof wall to hold the hoof in place
170
Q

The corium has an inner edge that is _____ and an outer edge with _____ projections. What do these projections do?

A
  • smooth
  • lamina
  • Extend all the way through the hoof wall to hold the hoof in place
171
Q

Lining the top of the corium is the _____.

A

Corinet

172
Q

Just underneath the insensitive lamina is what kind of lamina?

A

sensitive, corial, and soft lamina (three names for the same thing)

173
Q

between the sensitive lamina and the hoof wall is what kind of lamina?

A

Insensitive/epidermal/hoof/hard lamina

174
Q

What is the landmark in the hoof for knowing where the sensitive/insensitive areas are?

A

The white line

175
Q

Just under the white line is what in the hoof?

A

laminar layer

176
Q

Even toed undulates stand on which toes? Which toes are the dewclaws and which are gone?

A
  • Stand on 3rd and 4th
  • 2nd and 5th are dewclaws
  • 1st toe is gone
177
Q

Even toed undulates stand on which toes? Which toes are the dewclaws and which are gone?

A
  • Stand on 3rd and 4th
  • 2nd and 5th are dewclaws
  • 1st toe is gone
178
Q

True or False: The coffin bone and hoof capsule are unable to separate from each other.

A

False

179
Q

When the hoof stats to “ski,” what part is typically damaged?

A

The laminar layer, can cause corium to bleed

180
Q

What causes the coffin bone to separate from the hoof wall?

A

Rotation

181
Q

What is laminitis? What are other names for it? What is it called in Europe?

A
  • Inflammation of the soft lamina
  • Also called founder, which is rotation or skiing of the hoof
  • Called white line disease in europe
182
Q

What are two chemical and two physical causes of founder/laminitis?

A

Chemical: Grain or grass
Physical: Road or foot rot

183
Q

How can grain causes laminitis/founder?

A

Too much grain can lower the pH of blood causing acidosis and laminitis

184
Q

How can grass cause laminitis/founder?

A

Plants that have a lot of phytoestrogen can cause vasodilation in animals that aren’t used to eating it. This causes increased blood flow, which can hurt the lamina

185
Q

How can a road cause laminitis/founder?

A

Can cause the coffin bone to want to rotate, separating it from the hoof wall

186
Q

How can foot rot cause laminitis/founder?

A

Anaerobic bacteria that like to live in the lamina damage the corial lamina and cause foot rot and laminitis

187
Q

How can overmedication cause laminitis/founder?

A

Over medication can cause metabolic shock and increased blood flow

188
Q

What does the deep digital flexor tendon have to do with laminitis?

A

This tendon pulls against the coffin bone to keep tension. As a last resort for laminitis, vets perform tenotomy, which is cutting this tendon, to relieve the pressure.

189
Q

Which tendon constantly pulls against the coffin bone?

A

The deep digital flexor tendon

190
Q

What is a sinker?

A

This is when there is nothing let of the coffin bone and the short pastern hits the hoof wall.

191
Q

Is a sinker a chemical, mechanical, or physical causes of laminitis?

A

Mechanical

192
Q

To form horns, the dermis changes to become a ______. This causes the outermost layer of the epidermis, the _____ _____, to _____.

A
  • Corium
  • Stratum corneum
  • Cornify
193
Q

Horns are cornified ____ ____.

A

Stratum corneum

194
Q

The cornual (horn) process is an extension of what bone?

A

The frontal bone

195
Q

What do you have to be careful of removing all of in dehorning?Why?

A
  • The corium

- If it is not all removed, it will continue to cause the stratum corneum to cornify and scurs will form

196
Q

Horns are ______ while antlers are _____.

A
  • Epidermal

- Dermal (bone)

197
Q

What happens to antlers during shedding/casting? when does this happen?

A

-The antlers are covered by a soft, velvety layer. This layer peels of, leaving only bone, and the antlers fall off. This happens in the winter

198
Q

What do antlers help do for hearing?

A

They help funnel sound to the ear

199
Q

What causes the antlers and velvet to grow on antlers?

A

Growth Hormone

200
Q

What causes the velvet layer to shed off the antlers?

A

-Testosterone

201
Q

Boone and Crockett vs Pope and Young is what?

A

A series of measurements to score antlers

202
Q

The smallest lower antler has what three names? What is it labeled?

A
  • Brow tine, brush tine, eye guards

- G1

203
Q

When teeth are forming, what invades the dermis?

A

The epidermis

204
Q

What are odontoblasts?

A

cells in the dermis that secrete dentin when forming a tooth and move further from the basal lamina

205
Q

What are ameloblasts?

A

cells in the epidermis that secrete enamel when forming a tooth and move further from the basal lamina

206
Q

Teeth are developed from embryonic ____.

A

Skin

207
Q

Skin in the gum is called _________.

A

Gingiva

208
Q

What produces the enamel crown of a tooth?

A

pockets of epidermis that differentiated to ameloblasts

209
Q

What produces the dentin of a tooth?

A

Dermis that differentiated and produced cementoblasts that secreted cementum and odonotblasts that secreted dentine

210
Q

What is dental pulp made of?

A

Living connective tissue and odontoblasts

211
Q

What are the two teeth categories and the four types of teeth?

A

Brachyodont: incisors and canines
Hypsodont: Premolars and molars

212
Q

Premolars and molars are mainly made of ______.

A

Cementum

213
Q

Brachyodont teeth are _____ shaped while Hypsodont teeth are _____ shaped.

A
  • Diamond

- Columnar

214
Q

What is the alveolus? For teeth, what is mainly found here?

A

A socket in the bone

-The roots

215
Q

______ connects tooth root to the bone by ____ ___, a kind of ligament.

A
  • Peridontium

- Fibrous cords

216
Q

What is the diastema?

A

The gap between the canines and premolars

217
Q

When doing a calculation formula, what do you have to multiply by? Why?

A
  • 2

- The formula only shows numbers for one side of the mouth

218
Q

The central nervous system includes what?

A

The brain and spinal cord

219
Q

The peripheral nervous system includes what?

A

Everything outside the CNS

220
Q

What are the two divisions of the PNS?

A

Sensory-somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system

221
Q

The _____ nervous system is the voluntary part of the PNS and the ______ nervous system in the involuntary part of the PNS

A
  • Sensory-somatic

- Autonomic

222
Q

The autonomic nervous system is a part of the ___ nervous system. What are the two subivisions?

A
  • Peripheral

- Parasympathetic and sympathetic

223
Q

In the embryo, what becomes the CNS?

A

The neural tube

224
Q

Everything inside the neural tube becomes ______, and everything outside it becomes _______.

A
  • CNS

- PNS

225
Q

What are the two kinds of nerves found in the PNS?

A
  • Afferent (Sensory; send info to the CNS)

- Efferent (Effector; send info away from the CNS to muscles generally)

226
Q

The autonomic and somatic nervous systems both have only _____ nerves.

A

Efferent

227
Q

The somatic nervous system has _____ neurons.

A

Motor

228
Q

The nervous system is made up of ______.

A

Neurons

229
Q

True or false: Body cells have a more negative charge than nerve cells and muscle cells.

A

False

230
Q

What causes the stronger negative charge in nerve cells/muscle cells?

A

Na+/K+ pumps

231
Q

Neurons can have an action potential, so they are _______.

A

Bioexcitable

232
Q

_____ are bundles of axons in the PNS.

A

Nerves

233
Q

_____ are the areas of a soma that has receptors for neurotransmitters.

A

Dendrites

234
Q

What is found inside the soma of a neuron?

A

Nissl bodies in the cytoplasm, simply rough ER

235
Q

Why are some neurons multipoloar?

A

They have many dendrites on the outside of the soma

236
Q

The end opposite of the soma in a multipolar neuron are ____ ___.

A

Terminal Bulbs

237
Q

What does it mean for nerves to be self propagating?

A

When an action potential starts in one spot, it travels down the neuron and to other cells in a wave-like motion

238
Q

Why is salt important to neurons?

A

Action potentials involve Na+, Cl-, and K+, so animals must get these salts

239
Q

In an afferent neuron, the soma is where? In an efferent neuron, the soma is where?

A
  • Muscle/body (PNS)

- Neural tube(CNS)

240
Q

True or false: All nerves contain myelinated and unmyelinated axons.

A

True

241
Q

What are the three layers of neurons from most cortical to most medullary?

A

-Epineurium, Perineurium, Endoneurium

242
Q

A _____neuron is a nerve that goes to the muscle.

A

Motor

243
Q

What is saltatory conduction?

A

The propagation of action potentials along myelinated axons

244
Q

Myelinated neurons are composed of what kind of cells?

A

Schwann cells

245
Q

What is myelin in myelinated axons?

A

An outer covering made of fatty tissue that acts as insulation and helps the action potential move faster

246
Q

Inside a schwann cell is an _____, surrounded by _____.

A
  • Axon

- Myelin

247
Q

True or false: Somas are myelinated

A

False

248
Q

What is multiple sclerosis?

A

The immune system of teh body attacks myelin sheaths. Nerves in the white matter of the brain lose myelin and become gray lesions. Loss of myelin causes the axons to become slower and less functional.

249
Q

Where are somas in the brain found? Where are axons found?

A
  • Somas: Gray matter

- Axons: White Matter

250
Q

In the brain, white matter is _____ while gray matter is _____.

A
  • Medullary

- Cortical

251
Q

A ____ is the junction between two neurons.

A

Synapse

252
Q

______ is before the synapse, _____ means after the synapse.

A
  • Presynatpic

- Postsynaptic

253
Q

What is the gap where neurotransmitters travel from terminal bulbs to receptors of dendrites?

A

Synapse

254
Q

A ____ ____ is between a neuron and what it is effecting, such as a muscle cell.

A

Neuroeffector junction

255
Q

What is it called where terminal bulbs attach to muscle?

A

Neuroeffector Junction

256
Q

How can synapses be modified?

A

By how many neurotransmitters are released, by how many receptors there are on the post-synaptic side, and by blocking receptors

257
Q

What flow out of terminal bulbs to receptors on the post-synaptic neuron?

A

Neurotransmitters

258
Q

What are neurotransmitters stored in?

A

Synaptic vesicles

259
Q

A synapse is a physical gap, while _____ bridge the gap.

A

Neurotransmitters

260
Q

Dendrites on the post synaptic neuron have ______ to receive neurotransmitters

A

Receptors

261
Q

True or false: Action potentials are unidirectional and only travel in one direction.

A

True

262
Q

What does re-uptake mean for a neurotransmitter?

A

The neurotransmitters travel back to the terminal bulbs to stop AP firing

263
Q

What is the most common neurotransmitter in the PNS?

A

Acetylcholine

264
Q

GABA is a ______ neurotransmitter.

A

Inhibitory

265
Q

What does acetylcholinesterase do?

A

Breaks down acetylcholine so that it may not bind to receptors

266
Q

How many nerves are there on each side of the brain? What are these nerves called?

A
  • 12

- Crainal Nerves

267
Q

What is the most common neurotransmitter in the CNS?

A

Glutamate, an amino acid

268
Q

Cranial nerves and spinal nerves are both a part of the _____.

A

CNS

269
Q

The Vagus Nerve is a ______ nerve. It makes up _____% of the parasympathetic nervous system and innervates the _____.

A
  • Cranial
  • 75
  • Heart
270
Q

The vagus nerve is a _____ nerve that arises from the _____.

A
  • Mixed

- Medulla

271
Q

In the spine, gray matter is _____ while white matter is ______.

A
  • Medullary

- Cortical

272
Q

_____ cells line the central canal of the dorsal cavity and produce ______ ______.

A
  • Epyndymal cells

- Cerebrospinal fluid

273
Q

Somatic motor neurons are specific to what kind of muscle?

A

Skeletal

274
Q

The dorsal half of the spinal cord is ______ while the ventral half is _____.

A
  • Sensory

- Motor

275
Q

Spinal nerves come out of each side of vertebra througg ____.

A

Foramen

276
Q

What is the first thing to happen at a synapse?

A

Action potential causes neurotransmitter vesicle to fuse with the membrane

277
Q

Spinal nerves innervate things in a ______ plane.

A

Transverse

278
Q

What are dermatomes? What disease affects these?

A
  • They are areas of skin innervated with sensory nerves

- Shingles

279
Q

What makes gray matter gray?

A

Somas of neurons

280
Q

The ventral portion of the spinal cord has _____ nerves, while the dorsal side has _____.

A
  • efferent

- Afferent

281
Q

What is it called where the dorsal and ventral root split?

A

Spinal Nerve Proper

282
Q

True or false: Sensory neurons are multipolar.

A

False, they are pseudounipolar

283
Q

Somas of sensory neurons are located in the ____ _____ ____ of the _____ nervous system.

A
  • Dorsal Root Ganglion

- Peripheral

284
Q

_____ cells are cells in the skin that help sensory neurons.

A

Merkel

285
Q

An afferent neuron is _____, while an efferent neuron is ______.

A
  • pseudounipolar

- multipolar

286
Q

The ventral root is _______ only, and the dorsal root is ______ only

A
  • efferent

- afferent

287
Q

Before the dorsal and ventral root, nerves are ______.

A

Mixed

288
Q

How does chicken pox (a herpesvirus) lay dormant in the body?

A

-It lies in the somas of nerves in the dorsal root ganglion

289
Q

True or False: In a reflex arc, the brain is alerted that an action needs to occur.

A

False, the brain is not involved

290
Q

In a relfex arc, sensory information is processed at the level of the _______ _____ and not the ______.

A
  • Spinal Cord

- Brain

291
Q

How many neurons and synapses are in a polysynaptic reflex arc? What are the neurons?

A
  • 3 neurons (afferent, interneuron, and motor)

- 2 synapses

292
Q

A ______ connects two synapses in a polysynaptic reflex arc. It connects a _____ neuron to a ____ neuron.

A

Interneuron

-Sensory to motor

293
Q

90% of neurons in the body are ______.

A

Interneurons

294
Q

______ _______ are presynaptic to an interneuron.

A

Sensory neurons

295
Q

_____ _____ are postsynaptic to an interneuron.

A

Motor neurons

296
Q

What does valium do?

A

It is a drug that enhances GABA, an inhibitory neurotransmitter, to cause tranquilization and muscle relaxation. This is used as an anesthetic.

297
Q

What is a divergent synaptic pathway?

A

There are more postsynaptic neurons than presynaptic

298
Q

What is a convergent synaptic pathway?

A

There are more presynaptic neurons than postsynaptic

Animal Physiology (3 decks)

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