Exam 1 Flashcards
Total Fertility Rate
Number of births per women
Developed Countries
Individualistic values such as independence and self-expression
Developing Countries
Collectivistic values such as obedience and group harmony
Traditional Cultures
Refers to people in the rural areas of developing countries that adhere to historical traditions and are more collectivistic
Globalization
Refers to the increasing connections between parts of the world in trade, travel, migration, and communication
Majority Culture
Sets most of the norms and holds most of the political, economic, intellectual, and media power
Minority Culture
Defined by ethnicity, religion, and language
Contexts
Settings and circumstances that contribute to variations in pathways of human development
Includes socioeconomic status, gender, and ethnicity
Socioeconomic Status
Refers to a person’s social class and includes educational level, income level, and occupational status
Ontogenic
Development of individuals
Phylogenic
Development of human species
Hominid Line
Evolutionary line that let to humans
Homo Sapiens
Human species, started 200,000 years ago
Characteristics include larger brain, wider female pelvis, longer dependency, development of tools, and control of fire
Have changed little over the past 20,000 years
Upper Paleolithic (Ice Age)
Humans begin to bury their dead
Cultural differences develop between groups
Trade begins
Language appears
Neolithic Period (10,000 to 5,000 years ago)
Humans cultivated plants and domesticated animals and lived in communities
Civilization (5,000 years ago to now)
First developed in Egypt and Sumer
Cities, writing, work specialization, wealth and status, political system
Evolutionary Psychology
Claims characteristics of human development are influenced by history, such as aggressiveness and mate selection
Dharmashatras
Sacred law books of Hindu religion Four Stages of Life: 1. Apprentice (0-25) 2. Householder (26-50) 3. Forest Dweller (51-75) 4. Renunciant (76-100)
Apprentice
Childhood and adolescence
Learns skills
Dependent on parents
Householder
Get married
Have houses and responsibilities
Forest Dweller
Begins when first grandchild is born
Man withdraws and lives in the forest
Renunciant
Prepares for the end of this life and the start of the next
Freud
Developed first methods of psychotherapy known as Psychosexual Theory
Psychosexual Theory
- Id (constantly seeks satisfaction)
- Superego (conscience restricts satisfaction of desires)
- Ego (mediates between Id and Superego)
Erikson
Developed the Psychosocial Theory that says driving force behind development is not sexuality, but the desire to integrate
Eight Stages of Psychosocial Theory
- Trust vs. Mistrust (Infancy)
- Autonomy vs. Shame (Toddlerhood)
- Initiative vs. Guilt (Early Childhood)
- Industry vs. Inferiority (Middle–Late Childhood)
- Identity vs. Identity Confusion (Adolescence)
- Intimacy vs. Isolation (Early Adulthood)
- Generativity vs. Stagnation (Middle Adulthood)
- Ego Integrity vs. Despair (Late Adulthood)
Bronfenbrenner
Developed the ecological theory that focuses on multiple influences that shape development in the social environment
Five Levels of Ecological Theory
- Microsystem (immediate environment)
- Mesosystem (network of interconnections between various microsystems)
- Exosystem (societal institutions that have indirect but important influences on development)
- Macrosystem (broad system of cultural beliefs and values and the economic and governmental systems build upon them)
- Chronosystem (changes that occur in developmental circumstances over time)
Genotype
Totality of an individual’s genes
Phenotype
Actual characteristics
Dominant Allele
Influences phenotype
Recessive Allele
Part of genotype
Polygenic Inheritance
Interaction of multiple genes rather than just one
Height, weight, skin color
X-Linked Inheritance
Pattern in which a recessive characteristic is expressed because it is carried on the male’s X chromosome
Nature–Nurture Debate
Debate as to whether or not development is influenced by genes or environment
Behavior Genetics
Aims to identify the extent to which genes influence behavior
Monozygotic Twins
Have 100% of genes in common
Dizygotic Twins
Have 40-60% of their genes in common
Heritability
An estimate of the extent to which genes are responsible for the differences among persons of a specific population
The higher the heritability (scale 0-100), the more the characteristic is believed to be influenced by genetics
Concordance Rates
Indicates degree of similarity in phenotype among paris of family members
Epigenesis
Continuous bidirectional interactions between genes and the environment
Genetic activity responds constantly to environmental influences
Reaction Range
Range of possible developmental paths established by genes
Environment determines where development takes place within that range
Passive Genotype –> Environment Effects
Results from the fact that in a biological family, parents provide both genes and environment to children
Evocative Genotype –> Environment Effects
Results when inherited characteristics evoke responses from others in the environment
Active Genotype –> Environment Effects
Results when people seek out environments that correspond to their genotype characteristics
Gametes
Sex cells that contain 23 chromosomes each and are created through oogenesis and spermatogenesis
Sperm and ovum form through meiosis
Meiosis
Gametes are generated through the separation and duplication of chromosome pairs, ending in four new gametes from the original cell
Crossing Over
Pieces of genetic material are exchanged between the alleles in each pair
Conception
- Ovary releases an ovum that matures into a follicle
- 14 days into cycle, follicle bursts and ovum is released into fallopian tubes
- Conception can only occur in the first 24 hours after ovum reaches fallopian tubes
- Sperm penetrates ovum in fallopian tubes and causes a chemical reaction to make a shield around the ovum
Germinal Period
First 2 weeks
Zygote implants itself into uterine walls
Begins division and differentiation
Blastocyst forms after 1 week
Outer layer is a trophoblast that provides protection
Embryonic disk is the inner layer that is the embryo
2nd week blastocyst is nourished by blood and trophoblast becomes amnion, placenta, and umbilical cord
Embryonic Period
Weeks 3-8
Differentiation occurs rapidly
3rd week endoderm, mesoderm, and ectoderm are formed; neural tube is formed
4th week shape of head is apparent, eyes, ears, nose, and mouth form; heart starts beating
Weeks 5-8 arms and legs appear, digestive system develops
Week 8 all organs besides sex organs are formed
Fetal Period
Week 9 to Birth
Organs develop, genitals are formed after 3rd month
2nd trimester fetus is active and responsive
Usually viable at 28 weeks
Prenatal Care
Dependent on culture and socioeconomic status
Before: ensure mother is healthy, avoid alcohol, tobacco, and other drugs
During: balanced diet (gain 25-35 pounds), exercise moderately, avoid teratogens (malnutrition, infectious diseases, alcohol/tobacco/drugs)
Chromosomal Disorders
Sex Chromosome (extra X or Y) results in cognitive deficits, learning disorders, inability to reproduce Trisomy 21 (Down Syndrome) results in distinct physical features, aging quickly, and varied social development
Ultrasound
High-frequency sound waves are directed toward uterus and crease computer image
Screens for Down Syndrome
Normal and high-risk pregnancies
Amnioscentesis
Needle draws out amniotic fluid to assess fetus genotype
15-20 weeks into pregnancy
Used for at-risk pregnancies
Chorionic Villi Sampling
Takes cells from 5-10 weeks gestation through vagina or abdomen to detect genetic problems
Genetic Counseling
Take comprehensive family history to determine risks
Utilized by couples with inherited genetic conditions, history of miscarriage, and older couples
Infertility
The inability to attain pregnancy after at least a year of regular sexual intercourse
50% men, 50% women
Caused by too few sperm, poor sperm quality, low sperm motility, or inability to ovulate
Artificial Insemination
Injecting sperm directly into the uterus
Most often donated sperm
70% success rate
Infertility Drugs
Mimic hormones to stimulate follicles
Can cause multiple births
In Vitro Fertilization
Uses drugs to stimulate follicles
Removes follicles to combine with sperm, and transfers promising zygotes to the uterus
Birth Process
- Labor
- Delivery
- Expelling the placenta and umbilical cord
Oxytocin
Hormone released from the woman’s pituitary gland that initiates the birth process
Labor
Longest and most taxing stage
Cervix dilates and muscles of the uterus contract to push the fetus into the vagina toward the cervix
Contractions last about 60-90 seconds at their peak
Averages about 12hrs for first births and 6hrs for subsequent births
Delivery
Usually takes 30min to an hour
Fetus is pushed out of the cervix and into the birth canal
Contractions remain 60-90 seconds long
Crowning
When the baby’s head appears at the outer opening of the vagina
Episiotomy
Incision to make the vaginal opening longer during the birth process
Expelling Placenta and Umbilical Cord
Contractions push the placenta and umbilical cord out of the uterus
Process can take from a few minutes to half an hour
60second contractions
Entire placenta must come out; life threatening if it does not
“Failure to Progress”
Woman has begun birthing process but it is taking longer than normal
Stimulate progress by walking around, taking a nap, having an enema, or receiving synthetic oxytocin
Breech Presentation
When the feet or buttocks are positioned to come out of the birth canal first
Dangerous because it can cause the umbilical cord to become constricted, which could lead to insufficient oxygen and brain damage to the baby
Cesarean Delivery
Involves cutting open the abdomen and retrieving the baby directly from the uterus
Epidural
Injection of an anesthetic drug into the spinal fluid to help the mother manage the pain while remaining alert
Electronic Fetal Monitoring
Tracks the fetus’s heartbeat, either externally through the mother’s abdomen or directly by running a wire through the cervix and placing a sensor on the fetus’s scalp
Fontanels
Soft spots on the skull between loosely joined pieces of skull that shift during the birth process to assist passage through the canal
Neonate
Newborn baby, up to 4 weeks old
Neonatal Jaundice
Yellowish pallor common in the first few days of life due to immaturity of the liver
Anoxia
Deprivation of oxygen during the birth process and soon after that can result in serious neurological damage within minutes
Apgar Scale
Measures Appearance, Pulse, Grimace, Activity, and Respiration
Brazelton Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale
27-item scale of neonatal functioning with overall ratings “worrisome,” “normal,” and “superior”
Assesses reflexes, physical states, responses to social stimulation, and central nervous system instability
Low Birth Weight
Neonates weighing less than 5.5 pounds
Preterm
Babies born at least 37 weeks gestation or less
Small for Date
Term applied to neonates who weigh less than 90% of neonates who were born at the same gestational age
Very Low Birth Weight
Neonates weighing less than 3.3 pounds
Extremely Low Birth Weight
Neonates weighing less than 2.2 pounds
Surfactant
Substance in the lungs that promotes breathing and keeps air sacs in the lungs from collapsing
Kangaroo Care
Recommended care for preterm and low-birth-weight neonates, in which mothers or fathers are advised to place the baby skin-to-skin on their chests for 2-3 hours a day for the early weeks of life
REM Sleep
Phase of the sleep cycle in which a person’s eyes move back and forth rapidly under the eyelids
Experience other physiological changes as well
Stepping Reflex
Baby’s feet touch floor and baby makes stepping motions
Moro Reflex
Loud sound makes baby arch back, extend arms and legs outward, and bring arms together swiftly
Babkin Reflex
Pressing and stroking both palms makes baby’s mouth open, eyes close, and head tilt forward
Sucking Reflex
Object or substance in mouth makes baby start sucking
Rooting Reflex
Touching cheek or mouth makes baby turn toward touch
Grasping Reflex
Placing object in palm makes baby hold tightly
Swimming Reflex
Immersing baby in water makes baby hold breath and swim with arms and legs
Babinski Reflex
Stroking sole of food makes baby twist their foot and fan their toes
Sound Localization
Perceptual ability for telling where a sound is coming from
Let-Down Reflex
Reflex that causes milk to be released to the tip of the nipples in response to the sound of an infant’s cry, seeing its mouth open, or thinking about breast-feeding
Wet Nursing
Hiring a lactating woman other than the mother to feed the infant
Colostrum
Thick, yellowish liquid produced by mammalian mothers during the first days following birth
Extremely rich in protein and antibodies that strengthen the baby’s immune system
Fussing
A warm-up cry when babies are mildly distressed
No response leads to full-blown crying
Anger Cry
A cry that expels a large volume of air through the vocal cords
Pain Cry
Sudden onset, no fussing before
Baby takes a large intake of air and holds it before letting it loose
Swaddling
Practice of infant care that involves wrapping an infant tightly in cloths or blankets
Colic
Infant crying pattern in which the crying goes on more more than 3hrs a day over more than 3 days at a time for more than 3 weeks
Imprinting
Instant and enduring bond to the first moving object seen after birth; common in birds
Bonding
Concept that in humans the first few minutes and hours after birth are crucial to mother-infant relationships
Postpartum Depression
Feelings of sadness and anxiety so intense as to interfere with the ability to carry out simple daily tasks
