Exam 1 Flashcards
1
Q
Do species exist as individuals?
A
No, living things exist as collections.
2
Q
What is the most common estimate for how many species lives on earth?
A
8.7 million, excluding prokaryotes. Although it could be much more.
3
Q
How many species of insects are there?
A
1 million
4
Q
How many species of vertebrates are there?
A
53,000
- 25,000 fish
- 5,000 mammals
- 10,000 birds
- 8,000 reptiles
- 5,000 amphibians
5
Q
Have we described most species?
A
No, most of what is out there remains undescribed because the process of describing species is time and demands special skills which are in short supply.
6
Q
Is there a central database of species?
A
No!
But, an attempt to create a database of phylogenetic information is underway.
7
Q
What does phylogenetic tree?
A
A branching tree show evolutionary relationships.
8
Q
What are cryptic species?
A
Morphologically indistinguishable groups of animals that cannot interbreed.
9
Q
Have some species been named and described more than once?
A
Yes!
10
Q
What can we learn about extinct species?
A
Since most species never fossilized. Many extinct, ancient species will never be known.
11
Q
Are names given to fossilized species meaningful?
A
No, species are classified with other species that appear to be morphologically similar, but since there is so little data, we cannot be confident of what we observe and the guesses me make from our observations.
12
Q
Name an example in which we might have mis-used our fossil evidence when creating species classifications?
A
Allosaurus. There is only one known species of Allosaurus and there is a great deal of variation between specimens attributed to the species. In reality, the fossils we have may represent several species.
13
Q
In what genus are the largest specimens are the largest dinosaur specimens often placed?
A
Epanterias. Some specimens placed in this genus may just be very large examples of Allosaurus bones.
14
Q
What taxonomic groupings do we know best?
A
Birds, flowering plants, mammals, butterflies are all well-known.
15
Q
What taxonomic groups are not well-known?
A
Most insects including chalcidoids and beetles are less well-known but are becoming better understood. Moreover, only a fraction of insects have a name and a description.
16
Q
What groups of species is our understanding most limited?
A
Microorganisms. We are only beginning to get a sense of their true diversity.
17
Q
What is the Tree of Life?
A
The idea that all species are descended from a single ancestor.
18
Q
How do we know that all forms of life have a similar ancestor?
A
- Except for a few viruses, which may have undergone retrograde evolution, all forms of life on earth use DNA as genetic material.
- All forms of life share a common virtually identical genetic material
- All forms of life rely on the same biomolecules-amino acid, sugars etc.
Moreover, if other unrelated forms of life excited, they have gone extinct.
19
Q
What replaces the outdated animal kingdom/plant kingdom paradigm?
A
The Five Kingdom Scheme.
20
Q
What are the five kingdoms?
A
- ) Protista (the single-celled eukaryotes)
- ) Fungi (fungus and related organisms)
- ) Plantae (the plants)
- ) Animalia (the animals)
- ) Monera (the prokaryotes)
21
Q
What is the problem with the Five Kingdom Scheme?
A
It doesn’t reflect evolution very well.
22
Q
Are groups that appear to be morphologically similar typically phylogenetically similar?
A
No! Many groups that appear to be similar are actually not very similar, at all.
23
Q
What is a biological population?
A
Many individuals of a single species living in the same place.
24
Q
What is a biological community?
A
Several/many populations of organisms gathered together in a given area are called a biological community.
25
What is alpha diversity?
div
26
What is gamma diversity?
Total species diversity in a given habitat.
27
What is beta diversity?
div
28
Name three areas of unexplored biodiversity?
Tropical rainforest--actually we are understanding it better as we are destroying
Ocean floor--almost totally unexplored
Microbial world--we are just scratching the surface
29
What percent of the earth are covered by tropical rain forests?
Yet, what proportion of the earth's plant species are in tropical rainforests?
And, what proportion of the earth's animal species?
Covers 6% of the earth.
4/5 of plant species
1/2 of animal species
30
Why are rainforests so diverse?
It is a bit of a mystery. Primary factors:
1. ) History (been around for a long time)
2. ) Productivity
3. ) A heterogeneous environment. Biodiversity begets more biodiversity. Meaning 1 and 2 combine to produce 3.
31
How much of the earth does the ocean cover?
70%
32
How much of the air we breathe is provided bey the microscopic oxygen-producing phytoplankton floating in it?
50%
33
How much of the earth's ocean is unexplored?
95%
34
Is the deep ocean habitable to living things?
Yes!
35
Does the standard species definition apply when considering the microbial world?
No, because prokaryotes, which are the majority of microbes, do not reproduce sexually. Moreover, they exchange genes in ways that don't allow us to understand them as species in the traditional sense.
36
Can all microbes be cultured in a laboratory for study.
No, microbes cannot be cultures in a lab.
37
Do difficult environments like glaciers, deep drilled cores and hypothermal vents have biological diversity?
Yes, there has been unexpected biodiversity in all of these places.
38
Are ecology and evolution the same discipline?
Sort of. The mechanisms that drive evolution are ecological. And, the participants that make-up ecological interactions result from evolution.
Taken together they provide the answer to why there are so many species out there and why those species look as they do.
39
What is a prokaryote?
A lacks a nucleus, a mitochondria and other membrane bound organelle.
40
What is an autotroph?
An organism that produces its own energy typically via photosynthesis.
41
How does energy enter an ecosystem?
Via primary producers called autotrophs. Autotrophs create their own food via inorganic sources. Mostly, they use use solar energy to manufacture food via photosynthesis.
But, there are places such as deep sea hydrothermal vents and iron-rich rock deep below the earth's surface where autographs use the chemical energy found in methane and hydrogen sulfide to make food.
42
Do primary producers create energy?
No, they use the energy available in sunlight and inorganic compounds into the chemical energy stored in sugars.
43
How do pollination syndromes demonstrate the interaction of evolution and ecology?
Widely divergent species of flowering plants will evolve similar pollination mechanisms or "syndromes." Likewise, widely disparate types of pollinators will evolve to exploit these these syndromes.
44
What are pollination syndromes and how do they demonstrate coevolution?
A discrete set of floral, nectar, and pollen characteristics that match the sensory abilities, metabolism and biology of potential pollinators and ultimately ensure their efficient pollination by manipulating the behavior of their pollinator.
Pollinators evolve in response to these floral characteristics. This convolution then intensifies the interaction.
45
What is the Hawkmoth example of a coevolutionary pollination syndrome?
A flower evolves a long corolla to ensure that hawkmoth visitors must reach deeply into a flower in order to reach the nectar or the reward to the visit. By doing this the hawkmoth is then perfectly positioned to receive the flowers pollen.
Hawkmoths then evolve to longer tongues to enable them to more easily reach the flowers nectar.
This in turn places selective pressure on the flowers and intensifies the relationship.
46
What is the corolla?
The collective unit of petals on a flower.
47
What is obligate mutualism?
A type of mutualism where one species cannot survive without the other.
48
What is facultative mutualism?
A type of mutualism where both species can survive without the other species but both are better off if the other species is around.
49
What is the story of Darwin's hawkmoth?
When Darwin saw the Madagascar Star Orchid, which has a 10 inch nectar tube, he predicted that there must be a hawkmoth with a ten inch tongue to pollinate it.
40 years later a hawkmoth with a 10 inch tongue was discovered.
50
What does it mean that flowers compete for pollinators?
Some flowers evolve to be more conspicuous and offer greater rewards to get more pollinators to visit the flowers, but these changes or syndromes change who can visits their flowers. Therefore restricting the scope of competition.
51
What happens when pollinators for through extreme ecological specialization?
They evolve to only pollinate one plant. Sometimes this protects them from interspecific competition, but sometimes it doesn't and other pollinators maybe be able to visit "their flower"
52
What is interspecific competition?
When individuals of different species compete for the same resources.
53
What is intraspecific competition?
When individuals of the same species compete for resources.
54
Are all pollinators extremely ecologically specific?
No, some are generalists and able to visit a wide variety of flowers adapted to their pollination syndrome.
55
What is a pollination syndrome?
Flowers evolve a suite of traits to ensure they are pollinated. It can be abiotic: wind and water or biotic: bees, birds, flies etc.
56
What is special about the squash bee?
The squash bee feeds not the nectar of squash exclusively. Other bees can visit the squash, but the squash bee is its most effective pollinator.
Male squash bees hide in the carolla waiting for females to mate with as they forage for pollen.
The abundance of this pollinator makes it easy to grow squash and pumpkins, though most gardeners don't know they exist.
Squash emerge in late summer.
57
Discuss the pollination syndrome involving most flies and bees.
Generalists: Most flies and beetles. Look for open flowers, easy to reach pollen and nectaries. Offer large amounts of pollen because that is what their visitors are after. Usually early spring.
58
Discuss the pollination syndrome involving long-tongued bees.
They look for moderately long corollas. White, blue yellow or infrared flowers that indicate sucrose concentrated nectar. Sometime an area to land or leaves that must be pushed apart before the nectar can be reached. They also look for scented flowers that are open in the daytime. Also, they want sticky pollen that can easily be collected and transported.
59
Discuss the pollination syndrome involving short-tongued bees.
White, yellow, infrared flowers short corollas with easily available pollen. Want scented flowers, open in day time. Sticky pollen. Sucrose dominated nectar.
60
Discuss the pollination syndrome of bumble bees.
Same as short-tongued bees but must have hang upside down and buzz to release pollen.
61
Discuss hawkmoth pollination syndromes.
Look for very long corollas that effectively force the moth to push its face into the stamens in order to reach the reward. Moth don't care about the pollen so they must be tricked into transporting it. They want white heavily scented flowers that are open at night and have small amounts of concentrated nectar.
62
What is the stamen?
The pollen producing reproductive organ of a flower.
63
What is carrion?
The decaying flesh of dead animals.
64
What is the pollination syndrome for butterflies?
Similar to hawkmoths but they want a landing platform and they are looking for pink or lavender flowers.
65
What is the pollination syndrome of beeflies
Like butterflies but no landing pad.
66
Hummingbird polination syndrome?
Red flowers. Very long corollas with large amounts of dilute nectar. Open during the daytime. Bird is forced to push face all the way in. No scent.
67
Bats pollination syndrome?
Very big flowers that bats can reach their faces into. Large amounts of dusty pollen that will stick to mammal hairs. Open at night.
68
Carrion beetle pollination syndrome?
Flowers that smell like carrion and offer large amounts of pollen.
69
What is ecology?
The scientific study of the distribution and abundance of organisms, and their interactions with the environment.
70
What is meant by scientific study?
Different in every discipline: always uses some form of hypothesis deduction.
Process:
1. ) Someone become interested in explaining how an aspect of the natural world works.
2. ) Observations are made intentionally and unintentionally.
3. ) A hypothesis is constructed based on those observations.
4. ) Good hypothesis generate predictions that can be tested.
5. ) In experimental sciences experiments are set-up in other sciences additional evidence is gathered.
6. ) If prediction is not born out hypothesis is falsified.
7. ) The strongest hypothesis are usually accepted if multiple experiments fail to falsify them.
8. ) These hypothesis and their underlying models form scientific paradigms, which may last for centuries or long and form the basis of future scientific questions. But, they also limit it directions.
Footnote: theories cannot be proven true. They can only be proven false because any number of hypothesis can be generated to predict the same outcome.
71
How could the zonosemata wing markings evolve from natural selection?
Zonosemata have dark bands on their wings.
3 Hypothesis
1.) Courtship display
2.) Evolved to scare predators because it mimics a jumping spider
3.) Evolved to deter predation by jumping spiders.
72
Describe the experiment groups created to test the hypothesis about why Zonosemata have unique wing markings?
1. ) Untreated control group
2. ) Zonosemata with its own wings regaled
3. ) Zonosemata with housefly wings
4. ) Houseflies with zonosemata wings
5. ) Untreated houseflies
73
How did the experimental groups developed interact with hypothesis to form predictions?
Hypothesis 1: If the wing markings evolved for sexual selection. Whether or not the zonosemata had their wings or other wings they would have been equally vulnerable to predators.
Hypothesis 2: If the wing pattern evolved to scare predators by mimicking a jumping spider then one would expect that zonosemta with their own wings would experience reduced predation from non-jumping spider predators.
Hypothesis 3: If the markings limited jumping spider predation then mortality due to jumping spider would be limited but it would not effect other predators.
Zonosemata with their own wings were killed at a lower rate by jumping spiders when they had their own wings. There was no circumstance in which their predation by non-jumping spiders was impacted.
74
Is ecology and historic or experimental science?
It is a historical science but it is becoming and experimental one.
75
What is ecologies dominant scientific paradigm?
The field is very much in flux and there isn't one
76
What is a scientific paradigm?
A set of assumptions underlying a given discipline.
77
What levels of organization so scientist work at?
```
Any of the following:
Individual
Populations
Communities
Ecosystems
```
78
What is an individual?
A single discrete organism
In some cases it is easy to define. i.e. a single mouse
In other cases it is hard to define. An aspen tree might look like a single individual but under ground many aspen trees are interconnected.
A singel fungus mycelium might occupy a tens of kms underground
79
Give an example of a question that organismal ecology might ask?
How does a cave cricket find its way in and out of a cave each time it forages?
80
Examples of populations?
1. ) A herd of wildabeasts
2. ) All the bullhead catfish living in a midwestern lake
3. ) All of the tropicbirds nesting on a single island
4. ) The e.coli population of a single person's gut.
81
What sorts of questions do population ecologists ask?
They ask about the abundance, density, population growth an limits to growth. For example, thy might ask how the number of available nest sites impacts the maximum number of tropicbirds and island can sustain. Moreover, the size, shape dimensions of a population not about the interactions between populations.
82
Talk about the different functions different species might have in a different community?
Some are decomposers; some are producers
Some species may interact a lot; some not at all.
83
A biological communities tightly knit systems or opportunist assemblages.
Is is not clear. It is subject of debate among ecologists.
84
What sorts of questions would a community ecologist ask?
Something like to what extent can parasitic wasps control outbreak of pine sawflies and therefore is the presence of parasitoids necessary for the presence of pine trees?Moreover, question about the interaction between populations.
85
Ecosystems
Interacting assemblages of living things in a given area. Accounting also for non-living components such as light, water, seasonality nutrients, soil. This is the difference between and community and an eco system. The study of the biologic communities doesn't take into account the non-living elements.
86
Do ecosystems stand alone or are they nested within other ecosystems?
They are nested within other ecosystems.
87
What sorts of questions might an ecosystem ecologist ask?
The support provided by nutrients and energy brought into a bat cave via bat guano provides for non-photosynthetic ecosystems in the cave. Moreover, how living and non-living things interact.
88
What is a species?
No single definition. Different branches of biology use different definitions. There are three main conceptions of species:
1. ) The biological species concept
2. ) The morphological species concept
3. ) The phylogenetic species concept
89
What is the Biological Species Concept?
A group of individuals who are able to interbreed and and create fertile offspring.
Great definition form an evolutionary perspective.
It is a "real" or objective concept.
It is defined by the limits of gene exchange.
90
What is the Morphological Species Concept?
Species are groups of organisms that share certain morphological or biochemical traits.
This definition is used by biologists for whom it is advantageous or whom cannot use the "Biological Species Concept." For example biologists studying species that don't reproduce sexually. Or, biologists studying fossils.
Unfortunately, this theory is very subjective.
91
What is the Phylogenetic Species Concept?
Species with a specific lineage, which is recognizable distinct from other such lineages.
This definition uses relationship between species to define species. And it is dependent upon the Biological Species Concept.
92
What is an example of how one would test hypothesis is ecology?
Two scientists (Chris Whelan and Robert Marquis) studied the role of birds in limiting the density of herbivorous insects.
-Having observed that deciduous forests harbor hundreds of species of herbivorous insects, yet only a small portion of leaves are eaten every year, they wondered if birds are an important factor in controlling herbivore insects. Especially since there are other spiders, wasps and fungal infections that would control insects.
93
What experiment did Whelan and Marquis create to determine the role birds in controlling herbivore insects deciduous forests?
Multiple trees are put in cages such that insects but not birds can reach them. Since the cages themselves might have an impact, control trees were also put in cages but holes were cut so that birds could access the trees.
The data collected was the percent of leaves eaten and the density of herbivorous insects.
Hypotheis: If the birds are an important agents of insect control than more leaves should have been eaten and there should be more insects in the cages without the holes.
94
What was the result of Whelan and Marquis's study?
Caged trees had 70% more insects than controls and had an increased percentage of missing leaf area. Conclusion: Birds are an important potential age of herbivore control.
95
What are the problems of reproducibility in ecology?
In ecology, it is impossible to reproduce conditions. The conditions in a particular spot in a forest are not the same day to day let alone year to year.
96
What is the ecological time scales?
Ecological processes may occur over time scales ranging from days to millennia.
For example, molecules and tissues processes are completed in seconds and hours whereas populations and ecosystems are measured in centuries and millennia.
Processes ascending through time:
Biochemistry (understood through processes that occur in seconds)
Physiology (understood through processes that occur in hours weeks and sometimes years)
Ecology (months and sometimes centuries)
Evolution (centuries and millennia)
97
Is what we see today reflective of events that occurred centuries ago?
Yes! We are in the middle of an ecological process. For example we are in the middle of the process of forests forming after glaciation.
- Alpine tundra persist at high elevation
- Chicago was under ice 15,000 years ago "Lake Chicago" existed her thereafter, gradually growing as the glacier drained out of the Mississippi. As a result the fish here resemble the fish of the Mississippi not the atlantic.
- Deciduous trees have replaced pine and juniper trees as warm conditions persisted. In fact, a relic species of pines is still present in the Indiana dunes. Moreover, different species colonize at different rates.
98
What is the difference between climate and weather?
Weather is a particular set of abiotic conditions: sunlight, rainfall, temperature, humidity affecting a particular area at a particular time.
Climate, on the other-hand is the overall pattern of weather/
99
What is a Biome? Is it still the best way to look at vegetational areas?
A broad assemblage of plant and animal communities.
This is an old idea and it paints with very broad brush strokes.
A more recent approach is to name more specific area ecoregions.
100
What is an ecoregion?
They are the major ecosystems that result from predictable patterns of climate as influenced by latitude, global position and climate.
101
Name the 7 Biomes Molumby Focused on?
```
Tundra
Taiga or Coniferous Forests
Desert
Chaparral
Grasslands
--savannah
Temperate deciduous rainforests
Tropical rainforests
--Tropical dry forests.
```
102
What determines the character of terrestrial biomes?
Water/sunlight/temperature/disturbance
103
What provides the spatial structure to biomes?
Vegetation
104
What creates micro-environments within biomes?
The spatial structure created by vegetation.
105
Describe the Tundra.
- Lack of trees
- Lichens are the dominant vegetation, along with annual grass and in some places woody shrubs and specially adapted woody plants.
- Very short growing season.
106
Taiga or coniferous forest?
- Cone bearing trees; usually one or a few species dominates.
- Very common--covers huge areas at high latitudes or elevations.
- The cool to warm summer are the growing season.
- In the winter it is too cold for photosynthesis and the plants are dormant.
- Precipitation often falls as snow and the ground accesses it via snow melt.
107
Desert?
- Low rainfall
- Many deserts are hot and dry, but some are cold most of the year (The Gobi and the Great Basin)
- The dry environment often causes a dynamic difference between the night and day temperature.
- Grasses found when there is water or is dormant as seeds
- Usually not trees/often water hoarding succulents
108
Chaparral
- Created by a cold ocean current moving along the side of a continent.
- About 5% of California is Chaparral
- Cool rainy winters and dry summer.
- Dense spiny evergreen shrubs
- Destined to burn in the summer. Some plants evolve to induce fire.
- High biodiversity. Lots of endemism.
109
Cyanobacteria
Blue-green algae. Produces energy through photosynthesis. Autotroph. Prokaryote.
110
Benthos
Flora and fauna found on the bottom of oceans, lakes an other bodies of water.
111
What forms the base of most food chains?
-
112
Rmax
Maximum population growth rate (i.e. birth rate minus death rate).
113
Gleason
-
114
Clements
-
115
Does energy stay in ecosystems?
It released into the atmosphere. On the other hand, the matter stays in the ecosystem. i.e. the nitrogen carbon and other nutrients in our bodies are decomposed and used again.
116
Does matter stay in ecosystems?
Yes, the nutrients stay in the ecosystem after decomposition and are used again. The energy is released into the atmosphere.
117
Cellular respiration?
Conversion of biochemical energy into ATP, which is necessary for a diverse array of biological processes that keep autotrophs alive.
118
Is growth and reproduction the dominant drain on an organism's energy?
No, autotrophs use energy for cellular respiration first and use the remainder for growth and reproduction.
119
What is NPP?
Net Primary Productivity. The total amount of energy invested by autotrophs in growth and reproduction after, via cellular respiration, they have produced enough ATP to stay alive.
120
What is GPP?
Gross Primary Productivity. It is the total amount of chemical energy produced in a given area is a given time period.
121
What is the equation for NPP?
GPP-R=NPP
| where r is the energy used in cellular respiration or lost.
122
What does NPP represent for an ecosystem?
It represents the total amount of energy stored in organic material or biomass. It is critically important to understand because it is the amount of energy available from primary producers to the rest of the organisms in the ecosystem.
123
What are the two types of food chains?
Grazing Food Chains and Decomposer Food Chains
124
Do the decomposer and grazing food chains merge at the higher tropic levels?
Yes! For example robins will often eat crickets or earthworms. Crickets get their energy form live Maple leave and are thus part the grazing food chain. Whereas r earthworms get their energy form bacteria, which in turn for from dead leaves and is thus apart of the decomposer food chain.
125
Do forests tend to yield decomposer or grazer food chains?
They yield mostly grazer food chains because wood is not digestible until it has decomposed.
126
Do marine habitats have higher rates of grazing food chains?
Yes, because algae is so much easier to eat
127
What is under the surface of the Tundra?
Methane. In fact, there is enough to light on fire.
128
Lots of national forests are Taiga, why?
They are terrible for farming.
129
Are all deserts hot?
No, many are not. But, it is easier to call a warm area a desert because precipitation goes so much further in cold areas than warm due to evaporation.
130
Grassland?
- Dominated by grasses.
- Fire, seasonal drought and grazing prevent establishment of shrubs and trees
- Moderate rainfail--many temperatures
- Very widespread biome.
- Can easily shift to forest or desert
- Many have been destroyed.
131
Is the Savannah different than a grassland?
Some say yes, some say no. Specifically, it is grassland with scattered trees. Meaning that whatever factor that prevented trees form taking root in a grassland (grazing fire) was, at least partially remitted in a Savannah.
132
Deciduous Forests?
- Moderate rainfall
- Warm summer/cool, maybe cold winter. Usually the winter is cold enough to prohibit photosynthesis.
- Trees tend to have vertical layers including one or two strata of trees underneath.
133
Tropical rainforests?
- Most productive biome on the planet.
- Contant year round temperature
- Plants are broad-leafed and evergreen
- Epiphytes-plants that grow on other trees
- Usually one season is rainier that others.
- Because the canopy is so dense. Plants compete for light, creating several layers of trees.
134
Epiphytes
Plant that live on other plants, usually trees. Specially, orchis and mistletoe.
135
Tropical dry forests?
- Tend to occur in low wetland areas where the distinction between wet and dry season can be very pronounced.
- Deciduous trees, thorny shrubs and succulent are very common.
136
What are ecoregions?
People now consider that biomes are too general. Ecoregion are more specific. They account from climate, soil, vegetation and history.
137
What defines aquatic communities?
Availability of sunlight.
138
What color signifies productive water?
Green
139
What is the pelagic zone?
The top few meters of the ocean where light clearly penetrates. Generally low nutrient concentration because other than a few zones of upwelling, most dead organism sink to the bottom of the ocean.
140
What are the oceans biggest producers?
Free flowing algae
141
What is the Abyssal Zone?
Light is absent, but the wide variety of nutrients floating from above support a wide variety of organism.
142
Wetlands?
Can range of areas of periodic floods to permanently flooded areas.
143
Name the typical wetlands and where they occur?
- Estuaries--Occurs at the mouth of rivers (end)
- Swamp--flooded areas dominated by trees
- Marshes--flooded areas dominated by sedges and grasses
- Bogs and Fens--have distinctive vegetation because their soils are very alkali (fens) or very acidic (bogs)
144
What is the direction of biodiversity change?
Mostly, but not always, it increases from poles to tropics.
145
What is the latitudinal gradient in species diversity?
Increasing biodiversity from poles to tropics.
146
Does disturbance promote biodiversity?
Seems to, even it it was once thought otherwise.
147
What explains latitudinal gradient?
1. ) The topics have higher productivity.
2. ) History
3. ) Habitats are more complex.
148
According to Wallace what determines what species occur where?
Historical and evolutionary factors.
149
What is the geographic range of species.
Where it might be potentially located.
150
Keystone species?
Keeps everything else in balance
151
Describe the otter's role as a keystone species?
- Otters eat sea urchins
- If they did't eat the sea urchin, the sea urchin would go nuts and eat all the kelp.
- This would be a huge issue for the fish that depend on the kelp.
- There was evidence human interaction caused Orcas to start eating sea otters, which threw the echo system out of balance.
152
Name the two primary types of geographic species distribution?
- Cosmopolitan: Worldwide distribution. Not possible in the extreme.
- Endemic: Species found in a small restricted area. Other side of the spectrum.
153
What determines the geographic range of a species?
- History
- Biological tolerance
- Other species
154
How does palms vs. oak physiology demonstrate the impact that biological tolerance had on geographic range.
Their meristems (heart of palms), which are palm stem cells occur at the top of the trunk in a position that they would freeze immediately.
Meristems occur inside oak trees, which allows them to tolerate the winter.
155
How do coconuts disperse their seeds?
Via coconuts that float in the ocean. This is why palm trees tend to occur in the ocean.
156
What is a Gondwanan distribution?
When all the continents were together, it was called Gondwanan. Species have segmented themselves based on what was where during this separation. For example Antarctica has similar fossils to NZ
157
Are rats truly ubiquitous?
No, all species have at least some restriction.
158
How do new populations of species develop?
When something restricts the movement of species in a given area, a new population fo the species will eventually develop.
159
How many times did monkeys evolve?
Twice. In response to two separate conditions.
160
What do zone of upwelling accomplish?
Zones of upwelling move nutrients from the ocean floor up to the surface. Algae can use those nutrients and sunlight to create food. This is why all fishing occurs around zones of upwelling.
161
Do any monarch butterflies make the entire migration?
No. No butterfly makes the entire trip.
162
Name potential patterns of dispersion?
- Clumped: most common
- Regular:
- Random
163
Name an example of a clumped distribution?
Plethodon (salamanders) are found clumped under logs.
164
What causes clumped distributions?
- Seeds fall close to the parent plant
- Only occur in certain environments
- Social or safety reasons
165
How common is random distribution?
Probably doesn't exist. Would mean that there is no attraction or repulsion between species.
166
What causes regular distribution to happen?
There has to be some exogenous force causing it.
- Human intervention Agriculture
- Territoriality: A certain species needs a certain amount of space around it.
- Competition: For example, Creostoe brushes in the Mojave desert are uniformly distributed because competition prevents the growth of plants that are too close to each other.
167
What is migration?
Only accurate when the entire population moves.
168
What is sexual dimorphism?
When the male and female of a species look markedly different.
169
Do wasps have similar ratios of male to female.
No, there may be as many as 100 females per male. In fact, these males never leave the nest and mate with their sisters.
170
Is humans 50/50 sex allocation ratio common?
No, it is actually very rare.
171
What is metamorphosis?
When individuals appearance changes dramatically as individuals age.
172
What is a metapopulation?
A population of populations connected by migrations.
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How does geographic range influence populations?
If species have a small geographic range, they might only have one populations. If species have a large geographic range, they might have a many populations.
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Why do metapopulations matter?
They show constant pattern of species colonizing, going extinct, moving area, going extinct in new areas, recolonizing the old areas etc.
175
Name studied example of metapopulations patterns?
The Glanville fritillaries is an endangered species of butterfly off of the coast of Finland. Also, demonstrates the danger of restricting the habitat of a metapopulation. Moreover, the population of Glanville Fritillaries remains stable because they go extinct in certain areas, they recolonize from the areas where they remain.
176
Why do some populations within a metapopulation go extinct?
Natural catastrophe (storm), disease outbreak, sudden influx of predators.
177
Over time will all populations within a metapopulations go extinct at one time or another?
Yes, given enough time.
178
What is R?
The per capita rate of increase in population? i.e. per capita birthrate minus per capita death rate.
b-n=r
Where b is the per capita birth rate and d is the per capita death rate.
Given, no immigration.
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What is Rmax?
When r reaches its maximum value (highest possible per capita birth rate; lowest possible per capita death rate), the situation is called the intrinsic rate of increase or Rmax.
180
How is Rmax expressed?
Rmax (N) =deltaN/deltaT
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How does Rmax reflect species life trajectory?
Long lived species with lower mortality and late maternal age have lower Rmax. Pandas and human have lower Rmax. Fruit flies have high Rmax.
182
How does r relate to Rmax?
R is always less than or equal to Rmax. Almost always much less than Rmax.
183
Is R consistent among species populations?
No, an upland population will have a different R than a lowland population. In wet years, the R will be different than in dry years.
184
What is exponential growth?
Growth that assumes no change in R over time.
185
What is another name for density independent growth?
Exponential growth.
186
What is the most important idea about exponential growth?
The rate of growth is constant regardless of the size of the population. Moreover, it is density independent.
187
What does exponential growth happen in nature?
1. ) A brand new population founded by new individuals
| 2. ) A population recovering after a storm.
188
What do logistic growth rates model?
Density dependent growth.
189
What is R selected growth rate?
Higher growth rate. lower parental care. Small organisms. Many offspring. Early maturity. Short life expectancy. Type III survivorship. Semelparity.
Named because they are much more likely to live in unstable environments and therefore less likely to reach caring capacity. Moreover, their rate of growth is likely to be influenced by their intrinsic reproductive rate and less by hitting carrying capacity. K
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What is K selected growth?
Large organisms. Energy used to make each individual is high. Few off spring. Long life expectancy. Type I or II survivorship curve. Iteroparity(multiple reproductive events).
Named because K-strategists are more likely than r strategists to approach and respond to their caring capacity.
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When is r constant?
During exponential growth.
192
What are the two types of limits to growth?
1. ) Density dependent.
| 2. ) Density independent.
193
Name some density independent limits to growth?
Abiotic factors such as natural catastrophes or weather changes
194
Name some density dependent limits to growth?
Biotic factors such as when trees crowd each other or lack of nutrients.
195
Exponential Growth Formula
N(t)=Noe^rt
Where No=startign pop.
196
Would you rather be a hunter gatherer or a primitive farmer?
Hunter gatherer
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When did the human K change?
About 10,000 at the advent of agriculture. It changed again dramatically as the start of the industrial revolution.
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Is the human population growing exponentially?
No, it peaked in 1963 at 2.2%.
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When did human being absolute rate of increase peak?
In 1988 at 88 millions person/year.
200
When is the peak in human population expected?
Perhaps 10 billion in 2100 or 9 billion in 2050.
201
What is deltaN/deltaT when N=K
0
202
When in the log pop model a good fit?
In a lab setting.
203
When is the log population model not a good fit?
In real life there is a lag time between reaching carrying capacity and and the slowdown in reproduction.
204
Mark recapture equation
m1/N=m2/n2
m1 # of animals marked in the first sample
N the total population.
m2 # of marked animals in second sample
n2 total of animals in second capture
205
What do life tables tell us?
A person's chance of dying at any given time?
206
What is a cohort?
A group of organisms born at the same time.
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What is Ro
The rate of pop growth per capita.
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What are the relevant R intervals
less 1 population decline. Great than 1 population increases. Equals 1 pop. stable.
209
What are survivorship curves?
Plots the likelhood of organisms surviving to different ages.
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What is a type I survivorship curve?
Bowed out (convex) curve. Most individuals survive until adulthood. Humans elephant dear and other r-selected species.
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What is type II survivorship curve?
Straight line. An individuals chance of mortality is independent of its age. Small birds/mammals.
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What is a type III survivorship curve?
A bowed in curve (convex) Few individuals will survive to adulthood, but for those that do, their chance of dying actually declines with age. Redwoods, oysters, turtles, trees.
213
What populations have a disproportionate number of young people?
Rapidly growing ones?
214
What is m(x) when speaking of population dynamics?
Number of female off spring born to females during a given interval.
215
When are human death rates highest?
First few years of life and last few.
216
Is the death rate higher in the USA or the developing world?
In the USA. That is a sign of a developed economy; when death rates outstrip birth rates.
217
For neodiprion sawflies, is weather density dependent or independent?
Independent
218
For pacific mussels, is competition of space a competition a density dependent or independent growth limitation?
Dependent
219
When referring to reproductive episodes per lifetime, what is a semelparity reproductive style?
When organisms make one large reproductive effort. Like Salmon. i.e. organism use all their energy in one shot. Annual plants are another example.
220
When referring to reproductive episode per lifetime, what is an iteroparity reproductive style?
More than one reproductive episode. Likely fewer off-sprig per episode, but I am not sure abbot this.
221
What are the two styles of reproductive episodes per lifetime?
Semelpartity and Iteroparity
222
Human, large mammals and most birds have what sort of reproductive style? (When describing episodes per lifetime)
Iteroparity
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Insects, annual plants, squid, agave what sort of reproductive style? (When describing episodes per lifetime)
Semelparity.
224
What is clutch size?
Number of off spring reproduced per reproductive episode.
225
What is the trade-off between generation time and body size?
Larger organisms reach reach reproductive peak more slowly.
226
How does timing of age at first reproduction affect fitness?
Every organism has a restricted amount of time and energy. How they use that time and energy effects fitness.
227
What are pelagic zones?
Any ocean zone neither near the sea floor nor on the shore. Also called open sea.
228
What does an organism's life history describe?
How it allocates its energy and time to reproduction and growth.
229
Daitom
Type of algae
230
Spatial structure?
The way species are distributed relative to each other. Provides the framework that creates habitats.
231
Describe the process of disturbance invasion and succession?
Disturbance (fire, flood, drought, human activity large herbivores etc) happens.
This creates opportunities for new species to invade. these new species then modify the environment, which in turn makes way for secondary round of new species to invade. This process continues.
232
What is the difference between good invaders and species that do well in an area over time?
Good invaders have good dispersal power, but they may not have good staying power.
233
What do forest fires do in terms of succession?
They clear aways old brush, release nutrients into the soil. Seed that survive germinate rapidly as do wind borne seed seeds and animal dispersed seeds.
234
Describe who is successful in primary succession?
Species that are good at dispersal and tolerating harsh conditions, but often not as good at interspecific competition.
235
What makes some species more successful in secondary succession?
More specialized at dealing with environments. Better interspecific competitors. Often a less general species and therefore usually not as good at dispersal.
236
What sort so communities have species that can tolerate more competition for resources?
Climax communites.
237
Name a great secondary succession (or transition) species?
Willows. They can provide their own nitrogen and thus can thrives before soil becomes rich.
238
Why are grasses a good early succession species? And, why do other species often eclipse them later.
They can grow in many environments. Moreover, they're good generalists. They conduce to conduce to secondary succession because they trap soil. This sows the seeds of their own destruction as more specialized competitors move in and outcompete them.
239
Discuss Clements vs. Gleason?
Clements thought there were predictable outcomes that gave way to on true climax in any community. Conversely, Gleason thought random events determined the composition of communities and many communities never return to their original state after being disturbed beyond a certain point. For example Boreal spruce forests, sometimes never return to their original form.
240
What did Glacier Bay show?
The rapid retreat of the glacier there provided an ideal chance to study ecological succession. If Clements was right the succession would have precisely followed other parts of Alaska. If Gleason was right, there wouldn't be a set pattern. Seems Gleason was right. There are three patterns areas follow.
241
Are most communities in some state of disturbance or recovering from disturbance? What does this mean
Yes! This constant pattern of discovery and disturbance means that most areas are much more biodiverse than they would be without the constant flux.
242
Describe the Leibold Kiddie Pool experiment?
They want to know if pools would follow predictable assemblages of freshwater microorganisms. If they were, then this would suggest communities might be closer to Clements' view--that communities are real integrated units.
They filled 12 pools with water and left for a year. When they came back the pools had very different compositions.
243
What happened in the Kiddie Pools?
Accidents of dispersal greatly affected the species in each pool. What arrived early, greatly impacted what could colonize later.
Gleason's view was supported. Communities from chance and history.
244
What is trophic structure?
The way energy transfers within a community.
245
Which trophic level has the most energy?
The lowest
246
Should communities be described as set rotations of species or networks for interchangeable components?
The latter. Networks of interchangeable components. If one thing disappears, something will come in a replace it.
247
What is the niche?
The niche is where it sits in the competitive marketplace. i.e. the resources the species uses and who it competes with, who eats it and the opportunity if creates for other organisms/
248
What happens when a keystone species goes extinct?
The niches of many other species are eliminated.
249
Describe types of keystones species?
1. ) They engineer the environment in a way that allows other species to live.
2. ) They are a predator that allows diversity to be maintained
3. ) They are the mutualist or engineers.
250
Tell the story of the sea otter?
Sea otters prey upon sea urchins, otherwise sea urchins would run wild and eat all the kelp and fish would have nothing to eat.
251
Tell the story of piaster starfish?
Piaster grazing prevents the establishment of dense mussels beds, which allows other species to colonize rocks on the pacific coast.
252
How are mangrove trees a keystone species?
Mangrove trees grow into dense forests in salt water. This creates lots of other little niches.
253
How are acorn banksia a keystone species?
The banksia is the sole source of food for honey eaters, which are the primary pollinator of Western Australia.
254
Explain the difference between exploitation and interference competition?
1. ) Exploitation. Individuals use the same limiting resource thus when one uses it, the others can't
2. ) Interference competition: When individuals interfere with each other.
255
Describe the confused flour beetle example of interference competition?
They cannibalize the the eggs of their own species and other species in order to reduce competition.
256
Describe how in exploitation competition it is possible for competing species to survive.
Resources must be partitioned.
257
Does interference competition usually result in the exclusion of one species? What is the exception?
Yes, almost always. The paradox of the plankton.
258
What is Lotka and Volterra's competitive exclusion principle?
Two species cannot compete for the same limited resource for long. Even a minute advantage will eventually yield to competitive exclusion. This is almost always true in simple environments. In more complicated environments resource partitioning can happen.
259
Discues the dinosaur example of competitive exclusion?
Early cretaceous dinosaurs have a mix of therapy predetors sizes. Later on there are very few small ones. Perhaps the small therapy predators were competitive excluded.
260
Is most competition interspecific or intraspecific?
Most competitions is infraspecific competition for mates.
261
What is Allelopathy?
Competition by biochemical means. When plants secrete chemicals that are harmful to other plants.
262
Can two species pursue exactly the same resource without one winning?
No. But, recourse partitioning can take place and in that way both can co-exist. Alebit, one in a much smaller niche.
263
How does P. Aurellia beat P. Caudatum
Interference competition.
264
What is character displacement?
When organisms must be more and more adapted to take advantage of specific resources.
265
Name a beetle example of exclusion competition?
Thomas Park showed that the red and confused flour beetles never occur together. One always excludes the other.
266
What is resource partitioning?
When species have a similar niche. They can avoid direct competition by using resources in slightly different ways Also called niche differentiation.
267
What causes recourse partitioning?
It is not clear. It could be an evolutionary response. i.e. developing a slightly different niche. Or, it could bet competition exclusion eliminates all competitive situation where partitioning doesn't occur.
268
Describe the Caribbean Anole example of resource partitioning?
Many species of Anoles (a type of lizard) exist in a forest, but they are live in slightly different areas. Some in the canopy, other on the trucks of trees, some closer to he ground.
When a brown anole was introduced from Cuba to Florida, it excluded the green anole from the trunks of trees. The green anole is now restricted to the canopy.
269
What is character displacement?
The evolutionary changes that allow for resource partitioning are called character displacement.
270
Discuss he Geospiza fuliginosa and geospiza fortis example of character displacement from the Galapagos?
When the species occur together G. fulginosa has much narrower beak than G. fortis. This allows G. fulginosa to each much smaller seeds than G. fortis. Moreover, they partition the resource.
But, when they occur allopatircally or away from each other, their beaks are more similarly sized and they exploit a wider variety of seeds.
271
What is the difference between fundamental niche and realized niche?
The fundamental niche is the set of resources a species could potentially use for their survival.
The realized niche is the set of resources and habitats they actually use.
The latter is usually much more restricted due to interpecfic competition or predation.
272
What is Gausse's rule?
Two species cannot occupy exactly the same niche. While true in simple lab settings, it is more sublte true in nature because the complexity allows for resource partitioning.
273
Describe Joseph Connell's experiment describing the competitive relationship between barnacles.
Connell observed that two types of barnacles lived stratified distribution along the Scottish coast.
Semibalanus in lower intertidal areas. Chthamalus in the upper tidal areas.
When Connell removed Chthamalus from its preferred area no semiblaanus replaced it. This suggests that semibalanus is where it prefers to be and there is no difference between its realized niche and fundamental niche.
When Semibalnaus was removed from its preferred area, chthamalus replaced it. This means that semibalanus was winning a competing with chthamalus.
Moreover, chthamlalus fundamnetal niche and realized were not the same as in the absence of competition chthamalumus has the potential to survive where semibalnaus does. But, it doesn't because when they are in head to head competition Semibalus seems to be a more effective competitor.
274
Amensalism
When one species suffers and another suffers no effect from the interaction.
275
Discuss the Redwood example of Amensalsim?
A redwood tree falls into the ocean. During a storm is becomes a floating battering ram killing mussels and other intertidal organisms.
276
Allelopathy?
The production and releases of a chemical substance that inhibits growth of another species. These substances have a competitive advantage, but no metabolic advantage.
277
How is amensalism different from extremely one-sided interference competition?
It is not.
278
Describe and example of Allelorpathy in California?
Black walnut trees excrete an antibioitic called juglone. Juggling inhibits the growth of trees, shrubs, grasses, and herbs found nearby.
279
Describe mint and sagebrush's allopathic process?
During the dry season they secrete allelopathic substances in to the soil around them, which inhibits germination of grasses and herbs up to 2 meters away during the wet season.
280
What is Commensalism?
Interspecific interaction where one species benefits and the other is unaffected. Happens all the time in nature. Birds nest in trees.
281
Describe the harbor rove beetle example of commensalism?
The beetles mimic the behavior of ants and pass as them. This allows them to walk among ant and eat their detiritus and dead ants.
282
Describe the anemone fish (clown fish) example of commensalism?
Anemonefish or clown fish live near the tentacles of sea anemones, but they have developed a mucus that prevents them from being affected by the anemone sting.
283
What is the coach roach relationship to humans?
It is commensal. They benefit form us but do us no harm.
284
What is the mice and rat relationship to humans?
It is commensal/amensal. As in they are mostly commensal, they benefit from but do us no harm. When it they become disease carriers the relationship becomes amensal though as the harm they do us provides no benefit to them.
285
What is cats relationship to humans?
Depending on the circumstance is it mutualist or commensal. It is commensal when they are living in our houses doing nothing for us. They benefit, we don't. It becomes mutual when they catch mice.
286
Describe the mutualistic relationship between rooting plan and fungal mychorrhizae.
The fungus helps plants absorb nutrients from the soil, in return, the rooting plans provide the funds with carbohydrates.
287
Describe and example of mutualism vis a vis coral reefs.
Coral reefs have an organism called zooxanthellae living within them. Coral reefs provide a protected place of zooxanthellae to live. The zooxanthellae provide the coral reef with carbohydrates via photosysntheis.
288
Describe symbosis in lichen?
Lichen are not a single species, rather they are lichenized fungus. Lichenized fungus has been joined with blue-green algae or cyanobacteria. The algae preforms photosynthesis providing the fungus with carbohydrates. The fungus collects water and provides structure for the algae to grow.
289
Talk about the wasps and polydna virus obligate mutualism.
The virus and the wasp are in a mutual arrangement because the wasp is a parasitoid wasp that would be killed by it's host if its host immune system wasn't suppressed by the virus.
290
Discuss ant aphid facultative mutualism.
Some ants farm aphids and then milk them or the food they have eaten.
291
Discuss termite endosymbiotic protozoa obligate mutualism.
If protozoa weren't in the termite stomach, they would not be able to digest the good wood they eat.
292
What is the difference between endoparasites and ectoparasites?
Endoparasites eat their hosts from the inside. Ectoparasites eat their hosts from the outside.
293
How does the predator prey relationship reflect and arms race according to Haldane?
1. ) Predator or parasite evolves a trait that allows them to attack.
2. ) Natural selection favors individuals that are able to defend against this attack.
3. ) As the frequency of defended individual increases. Predators and parasites will develop novel attack strategies.
4. ) Will continue as long as both species survive.
294
Discuss how milkweed has co-evolved to defend against herbivory?
They have made their leaves poisonous to most herbivores.
295
What species has co-evolved to avoid poisonous problems associated with milkweed?
Monarch butterflies. They can tolerate milkweed toxins and sequester themselves within milkweed protected from other plants.
296
What does the story of the prickly pear cactus' introduction to Australia from South America tell us about how a herbivore can control a population?
When prickly pear cactus was introduced to Australia, it overran the island crowding out important grazing vegetation causing great difficulties for farmers raising sheep.
The population of the cactus wasn't controlled until a moth that eats it was introduced form Argentina in 1925. By 1930, its population was under control.
297
When happens when a predator drives its prey extinct?
If there is no other option, the predator will go extinct itself. If the prey goes extinct, then outside populations of the prey will recolonize.
298
How is the parasitic wasp, dieratiella rapae cause localized extinction?
Kills all the plants in which it oviposits into them. Then when the aphids are born they must search for new host plants
299
Talk about the fish example of excluding invertebrates from ponds? It shows what happens when predators decimate their prey.
Once they have, they will switch to theory prey such as insect larvae.
300
What did Lotka and Volterra notice?
They devised a mathematical model of predator prey interactions. It shows how predators and prey impact each others populations. This is the wolf/elk with the separated parabolas.
301
What ar the three most noticeable of island biodiversity?
1. ) Isolated islands have fewer species in any given taxon than non-isolated islands.
2. ) Small islands have fewer species in any given island than large islands
3. ) There is a higher turn-over of island species
302
What does Daniel Simberloff's theory show?
Small island have greater extinction rates. Isolated islands have lower colonization rates. Therefore small isolated islands have the fewest species.
303
Could all earth ecosystems exist with just primary consumers and decomposers?
Yes.
304
What is assimilation efficiency?
The efficacy with which animals convert food they ingest into energy.
305
What is fitness?
The likelihood of passing on genes (reproduction)
306
In unstable environments what is a better fitness strategy? Reproducing early or spending energy on its own survival?
Reproducing early!
307
In what environments does it reduce fitness to reproduce too early?
When too many resources are allocated to current reproduction and there isn't enough resources left-over for later reproduction.
308
Which trophic level is most susceptible to energy fluctuations?
Apex predators.
309
What has caused coral bleaching?
The combination of warmer water and more CO2 in water (which makes it more acidic).
310
How is nitrogen passed up the food chain?
As protein.
