Exam 1 Flashcards
Roles and Responsibilities of Athletic Trainers
Injury/illness prevention and wellness protection
Clinical evaluation and diagnosis
Immediate and emergency care
Treatment and rehabilitation
Organizational and professional health and well-being.
NATA Code of Ethics
Members shall respect the rights, welfare and dignity of all.
Members shall comply with the laws and regulations governing the practice of athletic training.
Members shall maintain and promote high standards in their provision of services.
Members shall not engage in conduct that could be construed as a conflict of interest or that reflects negatively on the profession.
Trauma
A physical injury or wound that is produced by and external or internal force.
Load
An external force acting on tissues that causes internal reactions within the tissues.
Stiffness
The relative ability of a tissue to resist a particular load. The greater the stiffness, the greater the magnitude of load it can withstand.
Stress
The internal resistance of the tissues to an external load is called a stress.
Strain
Extent of deformation of tissue under loading.
Deformation
Change in shape of a tissue.
Elasticity
A property that allows a tissue to return to normal following deformation.
Yield Point
The yield point is the elastic limit of a tissue.
Plastic
Plastic is the deformation of tissue that exist after the load is removed. (permanent changes)
Creep
Deformation of tissue that occurs with application of a constant load over time.
Mechanical Failure
Exceeding the ability to withstand stress and strain, causing tissue to break down.
Tissue Loading Types
- Compression
- Tension
- Shearing
- Bending
- Torsion
Compression
Compression is produced by external loads applied toward one another on opposite surfaces in opposite directions.
Tension
(opposite of compression)
Tension is the force that pulls or stretches tissue. The structure elongates and tensile stress and strain results.
Shearing
Shearing occurs when equal but not directly opposite loads are applied to opposing surfaces, forcing those surfaces to move in parallel directions relative to one another.
Bending
Bending can occur in one of the following ways:
- When two forces pairs act at opposite ends of a structure (4-point)
- When three forces cause bending
- When an already bowed structure is axially loaded.
Torision
Torsion loads caused by twisting in opposite directions fro the opposite ends of a structure cause shear stress over the entire cross section of that structure.
Traumatic
(Acute) Sudden
Overuse
(Chronic) Overtime, due to repetitive movements and poor biomechanics.
Musculotendinous Unit Injuries
The musculotendonuos unit consist of the muscle, the tendon, and the fascia that surrounds the muscle.
High incidence in athletic. Anatomical Characteristics -irritability/excitability -contractility -Conductivity -Elasticity
Types of Muscle
- Cardiac
- Smooth
- Striated (Skeletal)
Muscle Strains
A stretch, tear, or rip in the muscle or its tendon.
Pathologically, a strain is very similar to a contusion or sprain with capillary or blood vessel hemorrhage.
Time required for healing may be lengthy
Often involves large, force-producing muscles.
Treatment and recovery may take 6-8 Weeks depending on severity.
Return to play too soon could result in re-injury.
Muscle Strain Grade I
Grade I - some fibers have been stretched or actually torn resulting in tenderness and pain on active ROM, movement may be painful but full range is present
Muscle Strain Grade II
A number of fibers have been torn and active contraction is painful, usually a depression or divot is palpable, some swelling and discoloration result, but may not occur immediately. Usually patient hears a popping sound.
Muscle Strain Grade III
A complete rupture of muscle or musculotendinous junction. There is significant impairment to or perhaps total loss of movement. Initially there is a great deal of pain that diminishes due to nerve damage.
Muscle Cramps
Painful and involuntary skeletal muscle contraction.
Occurs in well-developed individuals when muscle is in a shortened position.
Muscle Gaurding
A muscle contraction in response to pain.
Following injury, the muscles that surround the injured area contract to, in effect, splint that are, thus minimizing pain by limiting movement.
Muscle Spasm
A muscle spasm is a reflex reaction caused by trauma to the musculoskeletal system.
Clonic Spasm - involuntary muscle contraction characterized by alternate contraction and relaxation in rapid succession.
Tonic - Type of muscle contraction characterized by constant contraction that last for a period of time.
Muscle Soreness
Muscle Soreness is pain caused by overexertion in exercise.
2 types of muscle soreness:
Acute-onset muscle soreness -this type of muscle soreness accompanies fatigue. It is transient and occurs during and immediately after exercise.
Delayed-onset Muscle Soreness - this type of soreness appears approximately 12 hours after injury/exercise. It become most intense 24 to 48 hours and then gradually subsides, so that muscle becomes symptom free after 3 to 4 days. Potentially caused by slight micro-trauma to muscle or connective tissue structures.
Tendon Injuries
The tendon contains wavy, parallel, collagenous fibers that are organized in bundles surrounded by a gelatinous material that decreases friction. The collagen fibers straightens during loading byt then return to their shape after loading.
Breaking point occurs at 6-8% of increased length.
Tears generally occur in muscle and not tendon.
Repetitive Stress on a Tendon
Repetitive stress on a tendon will result in microtrauma and elongation, causing fibroblast influx and increased collagen production.
Repeated microtrauma may evolve into chronic muscle strain due to re-absorption of collagen fibers
Results in weakening tendons
Collagen re-absorption occurs in early periods of sports conditioning and immobilization making tissue susceptibility to injury - requires gradual loading and conditioning.
Tedonitis
One of the most common overuse injuries. Has a gradual onset, with diffuse tenderness due to repeated microtrauma and degenerative changes.
Inflammation of the tendon
Obvious signs of swelling and pain.
The key to treatment is rest.
Crepitus
Crepitus is a crackling feeling or sound.
It is usually caused by the tendon’s tendency to stick to the surrounding structure while it slides back and forth. This sticking is primarily caused by the chemical products of inflammation that accumulate on the irritated tendon.
Tendonosis
The breakdown of a tendon without inflammation (tendon degeneration).
Without proper healing tendonitis may begin to degenerate and result in tendonosis.
-osis
means there is chronic degeneration without inflammation.
Tenosynovitis
Inflammation of a tendon and its synovial sheath.
In acute case - rapid onset, crepitus and diffuse swelling.
Often occurs in long flexor tendon of the digits and the biceps tendon.
Tendinopathy
Disease of a tendon, usually used to refer to either tendonitis or tedonososis.
Myofascial Trigger Points
A myofascial trigger point is a discreet, hypersensitive nodule within a taut band of skeletal muscle and/or fascia.
Trigger points develop as the result of mechanical stress.
- either acute trauma or microtrauma
- may lead to development of stress on muscle fiber = formation of trigger points.
Latent Trigger Points
Does not cause spontaneous pain.
May restrict movement or cause muscle weakness.
Become aware of presence when pressure is applied.
Active Trigger Points
Causes pain at rest
Applying pressure = pain = jump sign (crying out, wincing or withdrawing.
Tender point vs. Trigger point
Found most commonly in muscles involved in postural support
Contusion
Compression of soft tissue that results in bleeding into surrounding tissues.
Is a result of a sudden blow to the body and can be both deep and superficial.
Hematoma results from blood and lymph flow into surrounding tissues.
- localization of blood into clot, encapsulated by connective tissue
- Speed of healing dependent on the extent of damage.
Chronically inflamed and contused tissue may result in generation of calcium deposits (myositis ossificans)
Atrophy
Atrophy is wasting away of muscle due to immobilization, inactivity, or loss of nerve functioning.
Contracture
Contracture is an abnormal shortening of muscle where there is a great deal of resistance to passive stretch.
Generally the result of a muscle injury which impacts the joint, resulting in accumulation of scar tissue.
Synovial Joint
Synovial Joints are articulations of two bones surrounded by a joint capsule lined with synovial membrane.
Synovial joints include:
- Hyaline and/or articular cartilage
- Fibrous connective tissue capsule
- Ligaments
- Capsule with synovial membrane
- Joint cavity with synovial fluid
- Blood and nerve supply
- Muscle
- Menisci (fibrocartilage)
What is on the ends of the articulating surfaces?
Hyaline or articular cartilage
Joint capsule
All joints are entirely surrounded by a thick ligamentous joint capsule.
The inner surface of this joint capsule is lined by a very thin synovial membrane that is highly vascularized and innervated.
Synovial Fluid
Synovial fluid is produced by the synovial membrane. This fluid provide lubrication, shock absorption, and nutrition of the joint.
Meniscus
A thick fibrocartilage. The menisci deepen the articulation and provide shock absorbtion in that joint.
Synathoritic Joints
Immovable joints.
ex. Sutures in the skull
Amphiarthrotic Joints
Slightly movable joints
ex. Vertabrae
Diarthrotic Joints
Freely movable.
Synovial Joint Types
Ball and Socket - allows all possible motion
Hinge - flexion/extension
Pivot - Rotation about an axis
Ellipsoidal - convex head is a concave socket. Wrist
Saddle-shaped - reciprocally concave-convex. MP of Thumb
Gliding - Allows a small amount of gliding back and forth. Carpals/Tarsals and articular processes of the vertebrae.
Ligament Sprains
Stress that is applied to a joint that forces motion beyond its normal limits or planes of movement. Usually a result of traumatic joint twist that causes stretching or tearing of connective tissue.
The greatest difficulty with grade 1 and 2 sprains is restoring stability due to stretched tissue and inelastic scar tissue which forms.
To regain joint stability, strengthening of muscles around the joint is critical.
Ligament Sprain I
There is some stretching and separation of the ligament fibers, with minimal instability of the joint. Mild to moderate pain, localized swelling and joint stiffness should be expected.
Ligament Sprain II
There is some tearing and separation of the ligaments fibers, with moderate instability of the joint. Moderate to serves pain, swelling and joint stiffness should be expected.
Ligament Sprain III
There is total tearing of the ligament, which leads to instability of the joint. A grade 3 sprain can result in a subluxation. Initially severe pain may be present, followed by little or no pain as a result of total disruption of nerve fibers. Swelling may be great, and the joint tends to become very stiff some hours after the injury. In some cases a grade 3 sprain with marked instability requires surgical repair. Frequently, the force producing the ligament injury is so great that other ligaments or structures surrounding the joint may also be injured.
Dislocation
A bone is forced out of alignment and stays out until surgically or manually replaced or reduced.
High level of incidence in fingers and shoulder.
Gross deformity is typically apparent with bilateral comparison, revealing asymmetry.
With dislocations the stabilizing structures of the joint are often disrupted.
The joint often becomes susceptible to subsequent dislocations
Dislocations should always be treated like a fracture until ruled out.
Subluxation
A bone is forced out of alignment but goes back into place. (partial dislocation)
Osteoarthritis
The wearing down of hyaline (articular) cartilage.
Symptoms:
- Pain (as the result of friction)
- Stiffness
- Prominent morning pain, localized tenderness
- Creaking, grating.
The changes in joint mechanics lead to joint degeneration. OA commonly affects weight bearing joints but can also impact shoulders and the cervical spine.
Bursitis
Inflammation of bursae at sites of bony prominence’s between muscle and tendons.
Sudden irritation can cause acute bursitis, while overuse and constant external compression can cause chronic bursitis.
Signs and Symptoms include:
Swelling
Pain
And loss of function
Repeated trauma can lead to calcification and degeneration of internal bursa linings.
Bursae
Pieces of synovial membrane that contain a small amount of fluid.
Capsulitis
Capsulitis is the result of repeated joint trauma (joint sprains or microtrauma). It is a chronic inflammatory condition.
Synovitis
Synovitis is usually associated with capsulitis. Synovitis also occurs acutley, but a chronic condition can arise with repeated joint injury or with joint injury that is improperly managed. Chornic synovitis involves active congestion with edema.
As with the synovial lining of the bursa, the synovium of a joint can undergo degenerative tissue changes. The synovium becomes irregularly thickened, exudation occurs and a fibrous underlying tissue is present. Several movements may be restricted and there may be joint noise, such as grinding or creaking.
The Functions of Bone
Body Support Organ Protection Movement (through joints and levers) Calcium Storage Formation of blood cells (hematopoiesis)
Types of Bone
Classified according to shape Flat bones - skull, ribs, scapulae Irregular bones - vertebrae and skull Short bones - wrist and ankle Long bones - Humerus, ulna, tibia, radius, fibula, femur. These bones are more commonly injured.
Gross Structures of Bone
Diaphysis
Epiphysis
Periosteum
Diaphysis
The main shaft of the long bone. It is hollow and cylindrical and is covered by compact bone.
Epiphysis
Is located at the ends of long bones. It is bulbous in shape, providing space for the muscle attachments. It is composed of primarily cancellous bone, giving it a sponge like appearance.
Periosteum
A dense white fibrous membrane the periosteum, covers long bones except at joint surfaces. Throughout the periosteum on its inners layer exist countless blood vessels and osteoblast. The blood vessels provide nutrition to the bone and the osteoblast provide bone growth and repair.
Bone Growth
- Ossification occurs from synthesis of the bone’s organic matrix
- Invovles growth of diaphysis and the epiphyseal growth plates (towards one another).
- As cartilage matures, immature osteoblasts replace it to ultimately form solid bone.
- Deforming forces, premature injury and growth plate dislocation can alter growth plates patterns and/or result in deformity of bone.
- Bone diameter increases via the activity of oseoblast adding to the exterior while osteoclast break down bone in medullary cavity.
- At full size, bone maintains state of balance between osteoblastic and -clastic activity.
- Changes in activity and hormonal levels can alter this balance.
- Bone loss begins to exceed external bone growth overtime.
- As thickness decreases, bones are less resistant to forces -osteoporosis.
- Bone’s functional adaptation to stresses follows Wolf’s Law - every change in form and function or in its function alone is followed by changes in architectural design.
Bone Fractures
Fractures generally can be classified as either closed or open.
Signs and Symptoms:
- Deformity
- Pain
- Point tenderness
- Swelling
- Pain on active and passive movements
Closed Fracture
Is a fracture in which there is little or no movement or displacement of the broken bones.
Open Fracture
Is a fracture in which there is enough displacement of the fractured ends that the bone actually breaks through surrounding tissues, including the skin.
Types of Fractures
Greenstick Comminuted Linear Transverse Oblique Spiral Impacted Depressed
Greenstick Fracture
An incomplete break in bones that have not completely ossified, such a the bones of adolescents. This injury occurs most frequently in the convex bone surface, while the concave surface remains intact.
The name is derived from the similarity of the fracture to the break in a green twig taken from a tree.
Commuinuted Fracture
Comminuted fractures consist of three or more fragments at the fracture site. This injury could be caused by a hard blow or a fall in an awkward position. These fractures impose a difficult healing situation because of the displacement of the bone fragments. Soft tissues are often interposed between the fragments, causing incomplete healing. Such cases may need surgical intervention.
Transverse Fracture
Transverse fractures occur in a straight line; more or less at right angles to the bone shaft. A direct outside blow usually causes this injury.
Oblique Fracture
Oblique fractures are similar to spiral fractures. Oblique fractures occur when one end of the bone receives sudden torsion or twisting wile the other end is fixed.
Spiral Fracture
Spiral fractures have and S-shaped separation. They are common in football and skiing, sports in which the foot is firmly planted when the body is suddenly rotated in an opposing direction.
Impacted Fracture
Impacted fractures can result from a fall from a height, which causes a long bone to receive, directly on it long axis, a force of such magnitude that the osseuos tissue is compressed. This stress telescopes one part of the bone on the other. Impacted fractures require immediate splinting by the ATC and traction by the physician to ensure a normal length of the injured limb.
Avulsion Fracture
An avulsion fracture is the separation of a bone fragment from its cortex at an attachment of a ligament or tendon. This type of fracture usually occurs as a result of a sudden powerful twist or stretch of a body part.
Blowout Fracture
Blowout fractures occur to the wall of the eye orbit as a result of a blow to the eye.
Serrated Fracture
Serrated fractures, in which the two bony fragments have a saw-tooth, sharp-edged fracture line, are usually caused by a direst blow. Because of te sharp and jagged bone edges, extensive internal damage, such as the severance of vital vessels and nerves often occurs.
Depressed Fracture
Depressed fractures occur most often in flat bones, such as those found in the skull. They are caused by falling and striking the head on a hard, immovable surface or by being hit with a hard object. Such injuries also result in gross pathology of soft areas.
Contrecoup Fracture
Contrecoup fractures occur on the side opposite the point at which trauma was initiated. Most common in the skull.
Epiphyseal Conditions
A musculoskeletal injury to a child or an adolescent should always be considered to involve a possible epiphyseal condition. (age 10-16) 3 Types can be sustained by adolescents:
- Injury to the epiphyseal growth plate
- injury to the articular epiphysis
- Apophyseal injuries
Epiphyseal growth plate injuries - Salter Harris Classification
Type 1 - Complete separation of the physis in relation to the metaphysis without fracture to the bone.
Type 2 - Separation of the growth plate and a small portion of the metaphysis.
Type 3 - Fracture of the physis
Type 4 - Fracture of a portion of the physis and metaphysis
Type 5 - No displacement of the physis, but the crushing force can cause a growth deformity
Apophyseal injuries
Young physically active individuals are susceptible.
The apophyses are traction epiphyses, in contrast to the pressure epiphyses of the long bones. These apophyses serve as origins, or insertions, for muscles on growing bone that provide bone shape but not length. Common apophyseal avulsion conditions found in sports are Severs disease and Osgood-Schlatter disease.
Osteochondrosis
Also known as osteochondritis dissecans and apophysitis (If located at a tubercle/tuberosity)
The terms refers to degenerative changes in the ossification centers of the epiphyses of bones, especially during periods of rapid growth in children.
Synonyms for this condition are as follows: If it is located in a point such as the knee, osteochondritis dissecans and, if located at a tubercle or tuberosity, apophysitis.
With apophysis, an avulsion fracture may be involved, including pain, swelling and disability.
Possible causes of Osteochondrosis
Possible causes include:
- Asceptic necrosis (distrupted circulation to epiphysis
- Fractures in cartilage causing causing fissures to subchondral bone.
- Trauma to a joint that results in cartilage fragmentation resulting in swelling , pain and locking.
Nerve Trauma
A number of abnormal nerve responses can be attributed to athletic participation or injury.
The most frequent type of nerve injury is neuropraxia produced by direct trauma
A laceration can cut nerves, causing complications in healing of the injury. Fractures and dislocation can avulse or abnormally compress nerves.
Nerve Injuries
Nerve injuries, as with injuries to other tissues in the body, can be traumatic or overuse. Compression and tension are primary mechanisms
Neuropraxia
Interruption in conduction of an impulse down the nerve fiber.
Brought about via compression or blunt trauma.
Impact motor more than sensory function
Temporary loss function.
Nerve Injury Sensory Response
Physical trauma causes pain and can result in a host of sensory responses, such as:
- Pinch
- Burn
- Tingle
- Muscle weakness
- Radiating pain
Referred Pain
Pain that is felt at a point of the body other than its origin.
Neuritis
A chronic nerve problem, can be caused by a variety of forces that usually have been repeated or continued for a long time.
Inflammation of a nerve.
Symptoms of neuritis can range from minor nerve problems to paralysis
Body Mechanics and Injury Susceptibility
Body moves very effectively in upright positions - able to overcome great forces even with inefficient lever system.
Body must overcome inertia, muscle viscosity and unfavorable angles of pull.
Mechanical reasons for injury - hereditary, congenital or acquired defects may predispose athlete to injury.
Body build, structural make-up, habitual incorrect application of skill may also predispose individual to injury.
Microtrauma and Overuse Syndrome
Injuries as a result of abnormal and repetitive stress and microtraumas.
Frequently result in limitation or curtailment of sports involvement.
Often seen in running, jumping, and throwing activities.
Some of these injuries while small can be debilitating.
Repetitive overuse and stress injures include: achilies tendinitis, shin splints, stress fx, Osgood-Schlatters, runner and jumper’s knee, patellar chondromalacia and apophyseal avulsion.
Postural Deviations
There is often an underlying cause of injury
May be the result of unilateral muscle or bony and soft tissue asymmetries.
Sports activities may cause asymmetries to develop
Results in poor mechanics
Imbalance is manifested by postural deviations as the body tries to regain balance relative to center of gravity.
Injury generally becomes chronic and athletic participation must stop.
Athletic trainer should attempt to correct postural conditions
Postural conditions can make individual exceedingly more prone to injury.
Stress Fractures
The exact cause of stress fractures is not known, butther are a number of likely possibilities:
An overload caused by muscle contraction
Amenorrhea
An altered stress distribution in the bone accompanying muscle fatigue.
A change in ground reaction force
The performance of rhythmically repetitive stress that leads up to a vibratory summation point, which appears to be the most likely cause.
Typical Causes of Stress Fractures
Coming back to competition too soon after injury.
Changing events without proper conditioning.
Starting initial training too quickly.
Changing training habits.
Variety of postural and foot conditions.
Signs and Symptoms of a Stress Fracture
Focal tenderness and pain, (early stages)
Pain with activity, with pain becoming constant and more intense, particularly at night, a positive percussion tap test)
Bone Strength and Shape
Strength of bone can be impacted by changes in shape
- long bones with gradual changes are less prone to
injury
- Cylindrical and hollow nature of bones make them very
strong - resistant to bending and twisting.
Emergencies are?
Emergencies are unexpected occurrences that require immediate attention.
-The first hour is the “Golden Hour”. What you do in the first hour can have a huge impact on the athletes outcome.
Mistakes in initial injury management can prolong the length of time required for rehabilitation or cause life-threatening situations to arise.
Emergency Action Plan
*Primary concern is maintaining cardiovascular and CNS functioning.
Key to emergency aid is the intial evaluation of the injured patient.
Must at all times act reasonably and prudently
Must have a pre-arragned plan that can be quickly implemented.
When Calling 911, Relay the Following information:
-Type of emergency
-Suspected injury
-Present condition of patient (bleeding, respiration,
conscious, spinal)
-Assistance being given
-Location of phone being used
-Location of emergency
-Building limitations
-Gates /locks
-Facility managers and administrators must be aware of
emergency action plans and be aware of their specific
roles.
-Roles during an emergency should be rehearsed on a
regular basis.
-Individual should be assigned to accompany patient to
hospital.
-Plans should also be in place for other game personnel
Primary survey
Performed initially to establish presence of a life-threatening condition.
Surveys for airway, breathing, circulation, shock and severe bleeding are included.
Used to correct (rule out) Life threatening conditions.
Life threatening injuries take precedents
- Cardiopulmonary resuscitation, profuse bleeding and
shock.
- Level of consciousness must be assessed.
Secondary Survey
Performed after life-threatening condition is rules out.
This survey gathers specific information about the injury.
Assess vital signs.
Perform more detailed evaluation of non life-threatening conditions.
Dealing with Unconscious Patient
Must always be considered to have life threatening condition!
Note body position and level of consciousness
Check and establish circulation, airway, and breathing
Assume neck and spine injury
Remove helmet only after neck and spine injury is ruled out (face-mask removal will be required in the event of CPR)
With the patient supine and not breathing, ABC’s should be established immediately
If patient is unconscious and breathing, nothing should be done until consciousness resumes.
If prone and not breathing, log roll and begin CPR immediately
If pone and breathing, nothing should be done until consciousness resumes - then carefully log oll and continue to monitor ABC’s
Life support should be monitored and maintained until emergency personnel arrive.
Once stabilized, a secondary survey should be performed.
Hemorrhage
Abnormal discharge of blood.
Arterial, venous, capillary, internal or external bleeding.
Venous - dark red with continuous flow
Capillary - exudes from tissue and is reddish (abrasions)
Arterial - flows in spurts and is bright red
External Bleeding
Skin wounds, abrasions, incisions, lacerations, punctures or avulsions.
Direct Pressure - Firm pressure (hand and sterile gauze) placed directly over site of injury against the bone.
Elevation - Reduces hyrdostatic pressure and facilitates venous and lymphatic drainage - slows bleeding
Pressure Points - Eleven points on either side of the body where direct pressure is applied to slow bleeding.
Internal Hemmorage
The ATC should never neglect the inside of the body. Always check internal bleeding and bruises.
Monitor blood pressure, and significant drop is serious.
Blow to a certain area of the body should always be monitors for ruptured spleen, kidney, or liver.
Shock
Shock occurs when a diminished amount of blood is available to the circulatory system – that is , when the vascular system loses its capacity to hold the fluid portion of the blood because of dilation of the blood vessels.
Movement of blood cells slows, decreasing oxygen transport to the body.
Patients who are severely bleeding, have a fracture or internal injury are at more risk of shock.
Extreme fatigue, dehydration, exposure to heat of cold and illness could predispose patient to schock
Sings and Symptoms of Shock
Moist, pale, cold, clammy skin
Weak rapid pulse, increasing shallow respiration, decreased blood pressure.
Urinary retention and fecal incontinence
Inability or excitement, and potentially thirst
Shock Management
Maintain core body temperature
Elevate feet and legs 8-12 inches above the heart (don’t always do, adjust to the environment).
Positioning may need to modified due to injury
Keep patient and yourself calm. Psychological stress could negatively affect the patient
Limit onlookers and spectators
Reassure the patient.
Do not give anything by mouth until instructed by the physician
Secondary Survey Assessment of Vital Signs
Once the patient is deemed stable a secondary survey can begin by checking vital signs. Pulse State of Consciousness Respiration Blood Pressure Temperature Skin Color Pupils Movement Abnormal nerve response
Types of Shock
Respiratory Cardiogenic Neurogenic Pyschogenic Septic Anaphylactic Metabolic Hypovolemic
NCAA Committee on Competitive Safegards and Medical Aspects of Sports
This organization collects and develops pertinent information regarding desirable training methods, prevention and treatment of sports injuries, and utilization of sound safety measures.
Disseminates information and adopts recommended policies and guidelines designed to further the above objectives.
Supervises drug-education and drug-testing programs.
Sports Medicine Journals
Journal of Athletic Training Journal of Sorts Rehabilitation International Journal of Spots Medicine Physician and Sports Medicine Clinics in Athletic Training and Sports Health Care
