Exam 1 Flashcards
Indirect Assessment
involves using interviews, questionnaires, and rating scales to obtain information on the target behavior from the person exhibiting the behavior or from others
- does not occur when the target behavior occurs but relies on an individual’s recall of the target behavior
Direct Assessment
a person observes and records the target behavior as it occurs
Defining Target Behavior
describe(avoid labels)
use active verbs
no inference
defined for agreement
Continous recording
the observer observes the client continuously throughout the observation period and records each occurrence of the behavior. To do
so, the observer must be able to identify the onset and the offset (or beginning
and end) of each instance of the behavior
latency
the time from some stimulus or event to the
onset of the behavior. You measure latency by recording how long it takes the person to initiate the behavior after a particular event occurs.
Percentage of opportunities
the observer records the occurrence of a behavior in relation to some
other event (e.g., learning trial, response opportunity).
* “I put the toilet seat down five times today!!”
Product Recording
the outcome or permanent product
of the behavior is recorded as an indication of the occurrence of the behavior
Partial interval recording
observer scores the interval if the behavior occurred during any part of the interval
takes less time and effort; The observer records the behavior only once during the interval,
regardless of how many times the behavior occurs or how long it lasts
whole interval recording
the occurrence of the behavior is marked in
an interval only when the behavior occurs throughout the entire interval
If the behavior occurs in only part of the interval, the behavior is not scored as occurring
in that interval
Time sampling recording
you divide the observation period into intervals of time, but you observe and record the behavior during only part of each interval. The observation periods are separated by periods without observation
A-B Design
simplest type of design used in behavior modification has just two phases: baseline and treatment.
- does not demonstrate a functional relationship because treatment is not replicated
most often used in applied, nonresearch situations, in which people are more interested in demonstrating that behavior change has occurred than in proving that the behavior modification procedure caused the behavior change
example of A-B Design
a self-management project to show whether your behavior changed after you implemented a behavior modification procedure
A-B-A-B (reversal design)
baseline and treatment phases are implemented twice. It is called a reversal design because after the first treatment phase, the researcher removes the treatment and reverses back to baseline. This second baseline is followed by replication of the treatment
Demonstrates a functional relationship
Variations
Considerations
Multiple Baseline Design Across Subjects
a baseline and a treatment phase for the same target behavior of two or more subjects
Multiple Baseline Design Across Behaviors
a baseline and treatment phase for two or more behaviors of the same subject
Multiple Baseline Design Across Settings
is a baseline and treatment phase for two or more settings in which the same behavior of the same subject is measured
ABAB vs Multiple Baseline
A-B-A-B design can also have two baseline phases and two treatment phases, but both baseline and treatment phases occur for the same behavior of the same subject in the same setting. With the multiple-baseline design, the different baseline and treatment phases occur for different subjects, or for different behaviors, or in different settings.
Why do we like multiple baseline design?
functional relationship
treatment is replicated
behavior change as result
Alternating Treatments Design
e conducted in rapid succession and
compared with each other. For example, treatment is implemented on one day,
baseline the next day, treatment the next day, baseline the next day
Functional relationship can be demonstrated
a baseline or treatment phase is conducted until a number of data points are collected (usually at least three) and there is no trend in the data. A trend means the data are increasing or decreasing across a phase.
Compare baseline and treatment (two or
more)
Conditions are rapidly alte
Example of Alternating Treatment Design
A teacher wants to determine whether violent cartoons lead to aggressive behavior in preschool children. On one day, the preschoolers do not watch any cartoons (baseline) and the teacher records the students’ aggressive behavior. The next day, the students watch a violent cartoon and the teacher again records their aggressive behavior. The teacher continues to alternate a day with no cartoons and a day with cartoons. After a few weeks, the teacher can determine whether a functional
relationship exists. If there is consistently more aggressive behavior on cartoon days and less aggressive behavior on no-cartoon days, the teacher has demonstrated a functional relationship between violent cartoons and aggressive behavior in the preschoolers.
Changing criteria design
baseline and treatment phase but with goals
is, successive goal levels for the target behavior specify how much the target behavior should change during treatment. The effectiveness of treatment is determined by whether the subject’s
behavior changes to meet the changing performance criteria. That is, does the subject’s
behavior change each time the goal level changes
Reinforcement
The occurrence of a particular behavior is followed by an immediate consequence that results in the strengthening of the behavior. (The person is more likely to engage in the behavior again in the future.)
Examples of reinforcement
Guy taunts girl and gets slapped, guy continues to taunt girl in future
Mom asks kid nicely to make bed, kid makes bed, mom continues to ask kid nicely to make bed
Operant Behavior
A behavior that is strengthened through the process of reinforcement
acts on the environment to produce a consequence and, in turn, is controlled by, or occurs again in the future as a result of, its immediate consequence.
Reinforcer
The consequence (stimulus or event) that
follows operant behavior and strengthens
operant behavior
Positive Reinforcement
The occurrence of a behavior is followed by the addition of a stimulus (a reinforcer) or an increase in the intensity of a stimulus,
which results in the strengthening of the behavior.
Negative Reinforcement
The occurrence of a behavior is followed by the removal of a stimulus (an aversive stimulus) or a decrease in the intensity of a stimulus, which results in the strengthening of the behavior
Stimulus
an object or event that can be detected by one of the senses, and thus has the potential to influence the person
Negative reinforcement vs punishment
Negative reinforcement (like positive reinforcement) increases or strengthens a behavior. Punishment, in contrast, decreases or weakens a behavior.
Unconditioned Reinforcer
Biologically determined
they function as reinforcers the first time they are presented to most human beings; no prior
experience with these stimuli is needed for them to function as reinforcers
Ex: Food, water, human contact (warmth),
oxygen, sexual contact, escape from cold,
heat, pain, extreme levels of stimulation
escape behavior
the occurrence of the behavior results in the termination of an aversive stimulus that was already present when the behavior occurred
avoidance behavior
the occurrence of the behavior prevents an aversive stimulus from occurring. That is,
the person avoids the aversive stimulus by engaging in a particular behavior, and
that behavior is strengthened.
Conditioned Reinforcer
a stimulus that was once neutral (a neutral stimulus does not currently function as a reinforcer; i.e., it does not influence the behavior that it follows) but became established as a reinforcer by being paired with an unconditioned reinforcer or an already established conditioned reinforcer.
example of conditioned reinforcer
a parent’s attention is a conditioned reinforcer for most children because attention is paired with the delivery of food, warmth, etc
-Sight, sound, and scent of parents
– Parents’ smile, tone of voice, attention, praise
– Grades, positive evaluations
– Accomplishments (social, physical)
– Money
Factors that influence reinforcement
Immediacy
Consistency
Motivating operations
Individual differences
Magnitude
Contingency
the response produces the consequence and the consequence does not occur unless the response occurs first
Establishing operation
antecedent event that effects Potency, Likelihood
drinking pee when dehydrated in the desert
schedule of reinforcement
specifies whether every response is followed by a reinforcer or whether only some responses are followed by a reinforce
continous reinforcement schedule
each occurrence of a response is reinforced.
intermittent reinforcement schedule
responses are occasionally or intermittently reinforced
Fixed Ratio
a specific or fixed number of responses must occur before the reinforcer is delivered. That is, a reinforcer is delivered after a certain number of responses.
ex: classroom uses (sticker chart), Someone who cleans hotel rooms takes a 15-minute break after
having cleaned three room
Variable Ratio
delivery of a reinforcer is based on the number of responses that occur, but in this case, the number of responses needed for reinforcement varies each time, around an average number
ex: slot machine, A baseball player gets a hit approximately every third time he stands at the plate
Fixed Interval
the interval of time is fixed, or stays the same each time, Reinforce for the first response
ex: mail delivery, Checking the oven to see if chocolate chip cookies are done, when the amount of time needed for baking is known
Variable Interval
reinforcer is delivered for the first response that occurs after a varying interval of time has elapsed
ex: You sit outside at night and wait for a lightening bug/firefly to light up
Extinction
- Previously reinforced behavior
- No longer followed by the reinforcing consequence
- Behavior is weakened
Examples of Extinction
Look at your wrist when you no longer wear your watch – get no information about
time
Calling someone on her phone – she stops picking up your calls
Extinction Burst
When the reinforcer no longer follows a particular behavior, three things may
happen initially:
1. Increase in behavior
2. Occurrence of novel behaviors
3. Occurrence of emotional and/or aggressive behaviors
Example of Extinction Burst
When Mark pushes the on button on the remote control for his TV set and it does not turn on the TV (because the batteries are dead), he pushes it longer (increased duration) and harder (increased intensity) before he finally gives up. His behavior of pushing the on button was not reinforced by the TV turning on; therefore,
he quit trying, but not until he tried pushing it longer and harder (extinction burst
Spontaneous Recovery
The behavior occurs again sometime later
Occurs in situations when it was previously reinforced
Extinction of positively reinforced behavior
Positive reinforcer is no longer delivered
Extinction of negatively reinforced behavior
Aversive stimulus is no longer removed
Factors influences reinforcement
- Schedule of reinforcement
- Occurrence of reinforcement
- Reinforcement of functionally-equivalent behaviors
Punishment
A particular behavior occurs, A consequence immediately follows the behavior. As a result, the behavior is less likely to occur again in the future. (The behavior is weakened.)
Punisher
The consequence (stimulus or event) that follows operant behavior and weakens operant behavior
Also called an aversive stimulus
Positive Punishment
Follows behavior, aversive stimulus applied, behavior is less likely to occur (weakened)
Negative Punishment
follows behavior, reinforcing stimulus removed, behavior is less likely to occur (weakened)
Unconditioned Punishers
Biological importance
▪ Require no conditioning
▪ Examples: painful stimuli, extreme levels of stimulation (heat, cold, auditory, visual)
Conditioned Punishers
A previously neutral stimulus becomes a punisher
▪ Examples of conditioned punishers: “no”, reprimands, threats, warnings , facial expressions
▪ Whether a given stimulus is considered as a punisher is determined by its effect on that behavior
Stimulus control
The effects of reinforcement, extinction, and punishment are situation-specific
A behavior is said to be under stimulus control when there is an increased probability that the behavior will occur in the presence of a specific antecedent stimulus or a stimulus from a
specific
discriminative stimulus
The antecedent stimulus that is present when a behavior is reinforced
S-Delta
any antecedent stimulus that is present when the behavior is not reinforced
Stimulus example 1
You feed your dog Spot each time Spot begs when you are at the dinner table. You never
feed Spot when he begs and you are not at the dinner table. Now he only begs when you
are at the table
* SD = you are at the dinner table
* S-delta = you are not at the dinner table
Stimulus example 2
When Billy falls at soccer practice and Mom is there, he cries and Mom responds with
attention. When Dad is there, he tells Billy to get back on the field. Billy cries when he falls
only when Mom is at soccer practice.
* SD = mom at soccer practice
* S-delta = dad at soccer practice
Stimulus class
antecedent stimuli that share similar features and have the same functional effect on a particular behavior
Generalization
takes place when a behavior occurs in the presence of stimuli that are similar in some ways to the SD that was present during stimulus discrimination training
Stimulus control develops as a result of
stimulus discrimination training
When Mary asks her Mom to take her to the shopping mall, her Mom usually takes her.
Whenever Mary asks her Dad to take her to the mall he refuses. As a result, Mary only asks
her Mom to take her to the mall. The process that has resulted in Mary only asking her
Mom to take her to the mall is called
stimulus discrimination training
As a result of stimulus discrimination training, the presence of the discriminative stimulus
signals that the behavior will be reinforced
Whenever Tommy has a babysitter and asks to stay up past his bedtime, the babysitter lets
him. Whenever Tommy asks his parents to let him stay up past his bedtime, they do not let
him. As a result, Tommy only asks the babysitter if he can stay up past his bedtime. The
presence of the parents at bedtime is referred to as a(n) __________ for asking to stay up
late
S-delta
Respondent Conditioning
classical conditioning; after pairing (creating a temporal relationship) with the unconditioned stimulus (US), the neutral stimulus
(NS) becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS) that now elicits a conditioned response (CR)
trace conditioning
the NS precedes the US, but the NS ends before the US is presented.
ex: present the clicking sound and,
after the clicking sound has stopped, you present the puff of air
delay conditioning
the NS is presented and then the US is presented
before the NS ends
simultaneous conditioning
the NS and US are presented at the same
time.
backward conditioning
, the US is presented before the NS
Higher order conditioning
when an NS is paired with an
already established CS and the NS becomes a CS.
Conditioned emotional responses
By pairing a NS with one that elicits an emotional response, the NS comes to elicit the emotional
response
* Negative (unpleasant) CERs
* Positive (pleasant) CERs
Respondent Extinction
Present the CS repeatedly without
the US
* The CS will no longer elicit a CR
* Ex: present white rat to Little
Albert without noise; eventually
no fear response
