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exam 1 Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

What are all living things made of

A

Cells

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2
Q

List the levels of organization starting with atoms and going to an organism

A

atom, molecule, macromolecule, organelle, cell, tissue, organ, organ system, organism

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3
Q

What is special about a virus

A

they’re not alive bc they’re not made of cells, but they still reproduce (by shooting into other cells for replication)

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4
Q

What level of organization is the first living one

A

cells

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5
Q

What makes something alive

A
  • highly organized
  • homeostasis
  • reproduction
  • growth & development
  • use energy from environment
  • respond to stimuli
  • adapt to environment
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6
Q

How many cells are in the human body, and how many types are there

A

50-100 trillion cells
250 types

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7
Q

What is the central dogma

A

the similar basic chemistry of cells: replication of DNA, transcription into RNA, translation into protein

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8
Q

Why are living cells thought to have evolved from the same ancestral cell

A
  • same central dogma
  • universal genetic code
  • same set of amino acids
  • use ribosomes to synthesize proteins
  • ATP as energy
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9
Q

What is light microscopy

A

a magnified image of a cell as it reacts with the visible light

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10
Q

What is fluorescence microscopy

A

blue light hits the cells and green light is emitted using fluorescent probes

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11
Q

What is confocal fluorescence microscopy

A

layering of images to create a 3D fluorescent image

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12
Q

What is transmission electron microscopy

A

an electron beam is shone through magnets and the sample has been stained with heavy metals so that electrons can go through to make image

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13
Q

What are cells made of

A

atoms, chemicals, molecules

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14
Q

What is scanning electron microscopy

A

an electron beam goes through sample coated with heavy metals and creates 3D images based on reflected electrons

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15
Q

What is difference between transmission and scanning electron microscopy

A

transmission uses the electrons that have passed through the sample to make a picture, whereas scanning uses the electrons that have been reflected off the sample to make the picture

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16
Q

What are the types of microscopes from lowest resolution to greatest

A

eyeball
light
fluorescence
electron

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17
Q

How many divisions does the tree of life have and what are they

A

3:
- Eukaryotes
- Bacteria
- Archaea

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18
Q

Why are archaea and bacteria not eukaryotes

A

bc eukaryotes have membrane bound compartments in their cells, and don’t have nuclei

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19
Q

What is the model organism for bacteria

A

E. Coli

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20
Q

What is an organelle

A

it is the part of the eukaryotic cell that is a membrane bound compartment with a specialized function

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21
Q

How much DNA can be found in one cell

A

about 6 feet of DNA

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22
Q

What is the nucleus

A

this is the organelle in the cell that contains most of the DNA through chromosomes

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23
Q

What is the mitochondria

A

powerhouse of the cell means that it creates ATP from food molecules, carries a little bit of DNA, has inner (squiggly) and outer membrane

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24
Q

Why is mitochondria thought to have evolved from engulfed bacteria

A

their small amount of DNA is organized like bacterial DNA, and their ribosomes look like bacterial ribosomes

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25
Q

What is chloroplast

A

found only in plant cells, this contains chlorophyll (green) and captures energy from sun for photosynthesis

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26
Q

Why is chloroplast thought to have evolved from engulfed bacteria

A

their DNA and ribosomes are similar to that of bacterial DNA and ribosomes

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27
Q

What two parts of a eukaryotic cell are thought to have evolved from engulfed bacteria

A

Chloroplast and Mitochondria

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28
Q

What is the endoplasmic reticulum

A

produces many proteins and lipids for the cell to use, has a very convoluted membrane

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29
Q

What is the golgi apparatus

A

this receives the proteins and lipids made in the ER and modifies them, and organizes to send them elsewhere. this is pancake like compartments

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30
Q

What is the cytosol

A

the liquid filling the space

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30
Q

What is the cytoplasm

A

everything that is outside of the nucleus is considered the cytoplasm

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31
Q

What is the cytoskeleton and what is it’s purpose

A

network of protein filaments that crisscross the cytoplasm, purpose is to provide strength, shape, support cell movement

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32
Q

What are ribosomes

A

this is the site of protein synthesis, and can be connected to the ER to make rough ER

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33
Q

What is the nuclear envelope

A

separates the nucleus and the cytoplasm, made of two membranes of phospholipids

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33
Q

What are microtubules

A

these are part of the cytoskeleton and they segregate the chromosome during cell division

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34
Q

What is lysosome

A

organelle with digestive enzymes to break down worn out organelles, proteins, waste, engulfed items

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35
Q

What is peroxisome

A

organelle that works to keep the cell safe by breaking down harmful molecules

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36
Q

What is the plasma membrane

A

made of lipid bilayer, aka cell membrane, regulates what goes in and out of cell

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37
Q

What organelles does an animal cell have

A

eukaryotic so:
- nucleus (w/ envelope)
- cell membrane
- extracellular matrix
- cytoskeleton
- golgi apparatus
- ER
- ribosomes
- lysosome
- peroxisome
- mitochondria

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38
Q

What organelles and features do only plant cells have

A
  • chloroplasts w chlorophyll
  • vacuoles (big water filled sacs) 😏
  • cell wall
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39
Q

What features do bacterial cells have

A
  • cell wall
  • plasma membrane
  • sometimes flagellum (tails)
  • DNA (but not in a nucleus)
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40
Q

What is a model organism

A

this is a species of cells or organisms that are useful to study bc their biology represents a larger population and they are easy to study (raise, small, easy care)

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40
Q

What are protozoans, and what specific 3 types of cells are not protozoans

A

a diverse group of single-celled eukaryotes (mostly all eukaryotes are protozoans except plants, animals, and fungi)

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41
Q

What is the model organism for a simple eukaryote and why

A

Brewer’s Yeast bc easy to grow, short generation time, can undergo lots of genetic manipulation, small genome (6,000 genes total)

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42
Q

What is the model organism for plants

A

Arabidopsis is bc small size, short generation time, produces thousands of seeds, small genome

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43
Q

What are four model organisms for animals with their pros/cons

A

worms (easy to manipulate but don’t show phenotypical changes)
fruit flies (easy to raise and show lots of phenotypical changes)
zebra fish (vertebrae with hundreds of offspring)
mice (mammal is important to have, even though harder to work with and raise)

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44
Q

What is similar about yeast to humans

A

their amino acid sequences in proteins in cell division are interchangeable

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45
Q

What human cells could be studied in lab

A

fibroblasts, neurons, epithelial cells

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46
Q

What atomic elements make up 99% of the atoms in the human body

A

Hydrogen, Carbon, Nitrogen, Oxygen

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47
Q

What is an atom made of

A

a nucleus containing the protons and neutrons, and an electron cloud containing the electrons

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48
Q

What are the masses and charges for protons, electrons, and neutrons

A

protons = positive charge, mass 1
neutrons = no charge, mass 1
electrons = negative charge, mass negligible (0)

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49
Q

What is the atomic number of an element

A

this is the number of protons

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50
Q

What changes when an element is an isotope

A

the number of neutrons changes, but everything else stays the same

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51
Q

How does an atom have no net charge

A

when the number of electrons = the number of protons

52
Q

Which electrons determine how an atom will interact

A

the outermost ring of electrons

53
Q

What bonds are formed by the sharing of electrons

A

these are covalent bonds that form when electrons are shared

54
Q

Which covalent bonds can/cannot rotate

A

a single bone can rotate on it’s axis, but double+ cannot

55
Q

What is ATP

A

adenosine tri phosphate
adenosine ~ P ~ P ~ P

56
Q

When a molecule loses an H atom, does it get a positive or negative charge.

i dont like this question

A

H is H+, this is an oxidation reaction, so the molecule that lost the H+ gets a positive charge

OIL+RIG-
oxidation is loss of electron with positive charge

57
Q

What is the difference between polar and nonpolar molecules

A

polar molecules have a positive and negative charged end, whereas nonpolar is symmetrical with the charges

58
Q

What bonds are formed by the gain/loss of electrons, and what do they typically bond

A

ionic bonds form when one element wants to get rid of its one extra electron, and another molecule wants to take it
these make salta

59
Q

T/F Electrons in covalent bonds are shared equally

A

false, electrons in covalent bonds will typically spend more of the time in one atom’s electron cloud than the other

60
Q

What are the benefits of lots of hydrogen bonds

A

hydrogen bonds are noncovalent, their pros are:
- high surface tension
- high heat capacity
- high heat of vaporization

61
Q

What is the difference between hydrophobic and hydrophilic

A

Hydrophobic is a nonpolar molecule that doesn’t want to interact with water
Hydrophilic is a polar molecule that is readily dissolvable in water

62
Q

In a solution, is water the solute or solvent and what is salt

A

Water is the solvent and salt is the solute

63
Q

What is an acid

A

a molecule that is capable of donating H+, aciDonate, this increases the number of hydrogen ions in a solution

64
Q

What is a base

A

a molecule that accepts H+, bAsept, this reduces the number of hydrogen ions in a solution

65
Q

What is pH determined by

A

[H+] determines the pH, as the higher concentration of H+ makes an acid, and a lower concentration of H+ makes a base
in water, the [H+] = 10^-7 so the pH is 7
a base, the [H+] = 10^-12 so the pH is 12
an acid, the [H+] = 10^-1 so the pH is 1

66
Q

pH increases the [H+] by what ratio every number it changes

A

every number the pH goes up, there is 10x less [H+]
- remember that this compounds, so two levels up is 100x times less [H+]

67
Q

list the different types of bonds from strongest to weakest

A

covalent
noncov. ionic
noncov. hydrogen
noncov. van der waals

68
Q

What attraction could bring amino acids together in a cell

A

an electrostatic attraction could bring the positive end of an amino acid to the negative end of another

69
Q

What does it mean for a molecule to be organic

A

the molecule has a carbon base

70
Q

What are the four major families of organic molecules

A
  • polysaccharides (carbohydrates)
  • fats and lipids
  • proteins
  • nucleic acids
71
Q

What make carbohydrates

A

sugars

72
Q

What make fats and lipids

A

fatty acids

73
Q

What make proteins

A

amino acids

74
Q

What make nucleic acids

A

nucleotides

75
Q

What makes sucrose (sugar)

A

one glucose and one fructose molecule in dehydration synthesis

76
Q

What is dehydration synthesis reaction

A

during the chemical reaction, H2O is removed from the reactants to bond them together
- uses an OH from one and an H from the other and makes H2O to form the bond where they left
***this requires energy so +deltaG

77
Q

What is a hydrolysis reaction

A

during the chemical reaction, H2O is added to the reactant to separate into the multiple products
- added OH to one molecule and H to the other to delete the bond that was there
***this releases energy so -deltaG

78
Q

What is the structure of a fatty acid, and what does it mean to be saturated vs unsaturated

A

the structure of a fatty acid is a carboxyl group at one end, and a long hydrocarbon tail to the other end

  • saturated means that all bonds are single bonds in the tail, and the molecule can spin on all axes
  • unsaturated means there is one double bond in the tail, and this kinks the whole structure
79
Q

What is a triglyceride

A

A glycerol molecule bonds with three fatty acids to make triglyceride

80
Q

What is the phospholipid structure

A

hydrophilic head, and hydrophobic tail

makes cell membrane and sometimes will travel as a sphere to protect tails from water in cell

81
Q

What is the general amino acid structure

A
  • amino group
  • carboxyl group
  • side chain (aka r-group) (20 to choose from)
  • hydrogen on central carbon
82
Q

What bonds hold amino acids together

A

peptide bonds

83
Q

What is special about peptide bonds

A

they hold amino acids together, and they are similar to double bonds in that they do not allow for rotation

84
Q

How many amino acids are there

A

20

85
Q

How many combinations of amino acids are there

A

20^n where n = # amino acids in chain

86
Q

What is a pyrimidine and what amino acids have this structure

A

this is a single ring structure
- thymine
- uracil
-cytosine

87
Q

What is a purine and what amino acids have this structure

A

this is a double ring structure
- adenine
- guanine

88
Q

What does DNA and RNA stand for, and what makes them different

A

deoxyribo nucleic acid
ribo nucleic acid

therefore, their building blocks are nucleotides
DNA is missing and oxygen (where RNA has an OH group, DNA has just an H)

89
Q

What is the structure of a nucleotide

A
  • phosphate group
  • sugar
  • base
90
Q

What are the bonds between nucleotides

A

phosphodiester bonds

91
Q

How is DNA bonded

A

from 5’ carbon to 3’ carbon, and upside down on the other side

92
Q

What bases of nucleotides need to be paired together

A

DNA:
A-T
G-C

RNA:
A-U
G-C

93
Q

What does the noncovalent bond do for a protein

A

this keeps the original shape in tact, and structure determines function

94
Q

What can disrupt the noncovalent bonds in a protein, and what would happen

A

pH, temperature, and salt concentration can disrupt noncov. bonds and change the shape of proteins, making them no longer work correctly

95
Q

What bonds a macromolecule with other molecules

A

noncovalent bonds

96
Q

What are examples of each of these units:
subunits turn into macromolecules turn into macromolecular assembly

A

subunits (amino acids/nucleotides)
go to
macromolecules (proteins/RNA molecule)
go to
macromolecular assembly (ribosome)

97
Q

What is entropy

A

entropy is the gradual decline into disorder

98
Q

Does entropy always increase or decrease

A

increase

99
Q

What does catabolic mean

A

breaking down large molecules into smaller ones and releasing energy

100
Q

What does anabolic mean

A

making large molecules from smaller ones and needing energy input

101
Q

What does metabolism need

A

catabolic and anabolic pathways that are catalyzed by enzymes

102
Q

How does metabolism work

A

food molecules are turned into building blocks and energy (through catabolic rxn) and then turned into cell molecules (through anabolic rxn)

the energy is transported by activated carriers from being made (catabolic) to being used (anabolic)

103
Q

What is a catalyst

A

a feature (usually enzymes of proteins) that increases the rate of a chemical reaction

104
Q

T/F Biological systems lack order

A

false, biological systems are highly ordered

105
Q

What is OiLRiG

A

Oxidation is Loss of electrons
- the charge gets increased by one
Reduction is Gain of electrons
- the charge gets reduced by one

106
Q

What is a spontaneous rxn

A

one where energy is lost

107
Q

T/F Redox reactions produce energy

A

true! this energy is made from these reactions and the cells use the energy

108
Q

What do enzymes do a catalysts

A

they reduce the amount of activation energy that is needed for a rxn to start (the small mound before rolling)

109
Q

T/F Enzymes have an affect on deltaG and K

A

false, enzymes do not affect either of these

110
Q

What is deltaG

A

G is the free energy, so delta G is the change in total energy in the system

111
Q

What does -deltaG mean

A

the rxn IS energetically favorable
- spontaneous
- releases energy
- ball down hill

112
Q

What does +deltaG mean

A

the rxn IS NOT energetically favorable
- not spontaneous
- needs input of energy
- pushing ball up hill

113
Q

What is rxn coupling

A

when one reaction can help boost another one into happening
- seen when the bigger rxn has a -deltaG and releases energy
- this energy that is releases can push the deltaG rxn into happening
- -deltaG has to be a greater number than deltaG in order to compensate and push the ball all the way up the hill

114
Q

What is a chemical equilibrium

A

This is where the concentrations of the reactants and products reach a stable point and will flow equally forward and backward in the rxn

115
Q

What is k and what is the formula

A

the equilibrium constant

[products]/[reactants]

116
Q

What does it mean if k > 1

A

there’s more product when at equilibrium

117
Q

What does it mean if k < 1

A

there’s more reactant when at equilibrium

118
Q

What is the relationship between k and deltaG

A

when k gets bigger, -deltaG goes even more negative
when k gets smaller, +deltaG gets bigger

k^Gv
KvG^

119
Q

What are activated carriers

A

these store and transfer energy in a form cells can use

120
Q

What is the most widely used activated carrier

A

ATP

121
Q

When ATP is too high/low, what is used as an intermediate energy store

A

creatine as creatine phosphate

122
Q

What is phosphoryllation

A

when the last phosphate of ATP is transferred to other molecules

this happens when ATP is too high, so the phosphate is transferred to creatine to be stored
when ATP is too low, the creatine-phosphate storage is combined with ADP to make more

123
Q

Is turning ADP into ATP pos or neg deltaG

A

this is positive deltaG bc the rxn requires energy to form the ATP

124
Q

Is turning ATP into ADP and creatine-phosphate pos or neg deltaG

A

this is -deltaG bc the rxn releases energy

125
Q

What two molecules are activated carriers of electrons

A

NADH and NADPH

126
Q

What is the cycle of NADPH to NADP+

A

NADPH is used as a reducing agent
- allows A to reduce to A-H
NADP+ is left and takes H back
- B-H oxidized to B
NADPH again

127
Q

What are the oxidizing and reducing agents for electrons

A

NAD+ is the oxidizing agent
NADPH is the reducing agent

128
Q

Is dehydration synthesis (condensation) energetically favorable

A

no, this is reuiqring energy so its deltaG

129
Q

Is hydrolysis energetically favorable

A

yes, this released energy so its -deltaG

130
Q

What is different about synthesizing DNA, RNA, and polynucleotides, and what is it called

A

they require so much energy that they have to create their own in the process in order to complete the synthesis
this energy is called nucleoside triphosphate as energy

biology (4 decks)

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