exam 1 Flashcards
1
Q
What are all living things made of
A
Cells
2
Q
List the levels of organization starting with atoms and going to an organism
A
atom, molecule, macromolecule, organelle, cell, tissue, organ, organ system, organism
3
Q
What is special about a virus
A
they’re not alive bc they’re not made of cells, but they still reproduce (by shooting into other cells for replication)
4
Q
What level of organization is the first living one
A
cells
5
Q
What makes something alive
A
- highly organized
- homeostasis
- reproduction
- growth & development
- use energy from environment
- respond to stimuli
- adapt to environment
6
Q
How many cells are in the human body, and how many types are there
A
50-100 trillion cells
250 types
7
Q
What is the central dogma
A
the similar basic chemistry of cells: replication of DNA, transcription into RNA, translation into protein
8
Q
Why are living cells thought to have evolved from the same ancestral cell
A
- same central dogma
- universal genetic code
- same set of amino acids
- use ribosomes to synthesize proteins
- ATP as energy
9
Q
What is light microscopy
A
a magnified image of a cell as it reacts with the visible light
10
Q
What is fluorescence microscopy
A
blue light hits the cells and green light is emitted using fluorescent probes
11
Q
What is confocal fluorescence microscopy
A
layering of images to create a 3D fluorescent image
12
Q
What is transmission electron microscopy
A
an electron beam is shone through magnets and the sample has been stained with heavy metals so that electrons can go through to make image
13
Q
What are cells made of
A
atoms, chemicals, molecules
14
Q
What is scanning electron microscopy
A
an electron beam goes through sample coated with heavy metals and creates 3D images based on reflected electrons
15
Q
What is difference between transmission and scanning electron microscopy
A
transmission uses the electrons that have passed through the sample to make a picture, whereas scanning uses the electrons that have been reflected off the sample to make the picture
16
Q
What are the types of microscopes from lowest resolution to greatest
A
eyeball
light
fluorescence
electron
17
Q
How many divisions does the tree of life have and what are they
A
3:
- Eukaryotes
- Bacteria
- Archaea
18
Q
Why are archaea and bacteria not eukaryotes
A
bc eukaryotes have membrane bound compartments in their cells, and don’t have nuclei
19
Q
What is the model organism for bacteria
A
E. Coli
20
Q
What is an organelle
A
it is the part of the eukaryotic cell that is a membrane bound compartment with a specialized function
21
Q
How much DNA can be found in one cell
A
about 6 feet of DNA
22
Q
What is the nucleus
A
this is the organelle in the cell that contains most of the DNA through chromosomes
23
Q
What is the mitochondria
A
powerhouse of the cell means that it creates ATP from food molecules, carries a little bit of DNA, has inner (squiggly) and outer membrane
24
Q
Why is mitochondria thought to have evolved from engulfed bacteria
A
their small amount of DNA is organized like bacterial DNA, and their ribosomes look like bacterial ribosomes
25
What is chloroplast
found only in plant cells, this contains chlorophyll (green) and captures energy from sun for photosynthesis
26
Why is chloroplast thought to have evolved from engulfed bacteria
their DNA and ribosomes are similar to that of bacterial DNA and ribosomes
27
What two parts of a eukaryotic cell are thought to have evolved from engulfed bacteria
Chloroplast and Mitochondria
28
What is the endoplasmic reticulum
produces many proteins and lipids for the cell to use, has a very convoluted membrane
29
What is the golgi apparatus
this receives the proteins and lipids made in the ER and modifies them, and organizes to send them elsewhere. this is pancake like compartments
30
What is the cytosol
the liquid filling the space
30
What is the cytoplasm
everything that is outside of the nucleus is considered the cytoplasm
31
What is the cytoskeleton and what is it's purpose
network of protein filaments that crisscross the cytoplasm, purpose is to provide strength, shape, support cell movement
32
What are ribosomes
this is the site of protein synthesis, and can be connected to the ER to make rough ER
33
What is the nuclear envelope
separates the nucleus and the cytoplasm, made of two membranes of phospholipids
33
What are microtubules
these are part of the cytoskeleton and they segregate the chromosome during cell division
34
What is lysosome
organelle with digestive enzymes to break down worn out organelles, proteins, waste, engulfed items
35
What is peroxisome
organelle that works to keep the cell safe by breaking down harmful molecules
36
What is the plasma membrane
made of lipid bilayer, aka cell membrane, regulates what goes in and out of cell
37
What organelles does an animal cell have
eukaryotic so:
- nucleus (w/ envelope)
- cell membrane
- extracellular matrix
- cytoskeleton
- golgi apparatus
- ER
- ribosomes
- lysosome
- peroxisome
- mitochondria
38
What organelles and features do only plant cells have
- chloroplasts w chlorophyll
- vacuoles (big water filled sacs) 😏
- cell wall
39
What features do bacterial cells have
- cell wall
- plasma membrane
- sometimes flagellum (tails)
- DNA (but not in a nucleus)
40
What is a model organism
this is a species of cells or organisms that are useful to study bc their biology represents a larger population and they are easy to study (raise, small, easy care)
40
What are protozoans, and what specific 3 types of cells are not protozoans
a diverse group of single-celled eukaryotes (mostly all eukaryotes are protozoans except plants, animals, and fungi)
41
What is the model organism for a simple eukaryote and why
Brewer's Yeast bc easy to grow, short generation time, can undergo lots of genetic manipulation, small genome (6,000 genes total)
42
What is the model organism for plants
Arabidopsis is bc small size, short generation time, produces thousands of seeds, small genome
43
What are four model organisms for animals with their pros/cons
worms (easy to manipulate but don't show phenotypical changes)
fruit flies (easy to raise and show lots of phenotypical changes)
zebra fish (vertebrae with hundreds of offspring)
mice (mammal is important to have, even though harder to work with and raise)
44
What is similar about yeast to humans
their amino acid sequences in proteins in cell division are interchangeable
45
What human cells could be studied in lab
fibroblasts, neurons, epithelial cells
46
What atomic elements make up 99% of the atoms in the human body
Hydrogen, Carbon, Nitrogen, Oxygen
47
What is an atom made of
a nucleus containing the protons and neutrons, and an electron cloud containing the electrons
48
What are the masses and charges for protons, electrons, and neutrons
protons = positive charge, mass 1
neutrons = no charge, mass 1
electrons = negative charge, mass negligible (0)
49
What is the atomic number of an element
this is the number of protons
50
What changes when an element is an isotope
the number of neutrons changes, but everything else stays the same
51
How does an atom have no net charge
when the number of electrons = the number of protons
52
Which electrons determine how an atom will interact
the outermost ring of electrons
53
What bonds are formed by the sharing of electrons
these are covalent bonds that form when electrons are shared
54
Which covalent bonds can/cannot rotate
a single bone can rotate on it's axis, but double+ cannot
55
What is ATP
adenosine tri phosphate
adenosine ~ P ~ P ~ P
56
When a molecule loses an H atom, does it get a positive or negative charge.
| i dont like this question
H is H+, this is an oxidation reaction, so the molecule that lost the H+ gets a positive charge
OIL+RIG-
oxidation is loss of electron with positive charge
57
What is the difference between polar and nonpolar molecules
polar molecules have a positive and negative charged end, whereas nonpolar is symmetrical with the charges
58
What bonds are formed by the gain/loss of electrons, and what do they typically bond
ionic bonds form when one element wants to get rid of its one extra electron, and another molecule wants to take it
these make salta
59
T/F Electrons in covalent bonds are shared equally
false, electrons in covalent bonds will typically spend more of the time in one atom's electron cloud than the other
60
What are the benefits of lots of hydrogen bonds
hydrogen bonds are noncovalent, their pros are:
- high surface tension
- high heat capacity
- high heat of vaporization
61
What is the difference between hydrophobic and hydrophilic
Hydrophobic is a nonpolar molecule that doesn't want to interact with water
Hydrophilic is a polar molecule that is readily dissolvable in water
62
In a solution, is water the solute or solvent and what is salt
Water is the solvent and salt is the solute
63
What is an acid
a molecule that is capable of donating H+, aciDonate, this increases the number of hydrogen ions in a solution
64
What is a base
a molecule that accepts H+, bAsept, this reduces the number of hydrogen ions in a solution
65
What is pH determined by
[H+] determines the pH, as the higher concentration of H+ makes an acid, and a lower concentration of H+ makes a base
in water, the [H+] = 10^-7 so the pH is 7
a base, the [H+] = 10^-12 so the pH is 12
an acid, the [H+] = 10^-1 so the pH is 1
66
pH increases the [H+] by what ratio every number it changes
every number the pH goes up, there is 10x less [H+]
- remember that this compounds, so two levels up is 100x times less [H+]
67
list the different types of bonds from strongest to weakest
covalent
noncov. ionic
noncov. hydrogen
noncov. van der waals
68
What attraction could bring amino acids together in a cell
an electrostatic attraction could bring the positive end of an amino acid to the negative end of another
69
What does it mean for a molecule to be organic
the molecule has a carbon base
70
What are the four major families of organic molecules
- polysaccharides (carbohydrates)
- fats and lipids
- proteins
- nucleic acids
71
What make carbohydrates
sugars
72
What make fats and lipids
fatty acids
73
What make proteins
amino acids
74
What make nucleic acids
nucleotides
75
What makes sucrose (sugar)
one glucose and one fructose molecule in dehydration synthesis
76
What is dehydration synthesis reaction
during the chemical reaction, H2O is removed from the reactants to bond them together
- uses an OH from one and an H from the other and makes H2O to form the bond where they left
***this requires energy so +deltaG
77
What is a hydrolysis reaction
during the chemical reaction, H2O is added to the reactant to separate into the multiple products
- added OH to one molecule and H to the other to delete the bond that was there
***this releases energy so -deltaG
78
What is the structure of a fatty acid, and what does it mean to be saturated vs unsaturated
the structure of a fatty acid is a carboxyl group at one end, and a long hydrocarbon tail to the other end
- saturated means that all bonds are single bonds in the tail, and the molecule can spin on all axes
- unsaturated means there is one double bond in the tail, and this kinks the whole structure
79
What is a triglyceride
A glycerol molecule bonds with three fatty acids to make triglyceride
80
What is the phospholipid structure
hydrophilic head, and hydrophobic tail
makes cell membrane and sometimes will travel as a sphere to protect tails from water in cell
81
What is the general amino acid structure
- amino group
- carboxyl group
- side chain (aka r-group) (20 to choose from)
- hydrogen on central carbon
82
What bonds hold amino acids together
peptide bonds
83
What is special about peptide bonds
they hold amino acids together, and they are similar to double bonds in that they do not allow for rotation
84
How many amino acids are there
20
85
How many combinations of amino acids are there
20^n where n = # amino acids in chain
86
What is a pyrimidine and what amino acids have this structure
this is a single ring structure
- thymine
- uracil
-cytosine
87
What is a purine and what amino acids have this structure
this is a double ring structure
- adenine
- guanine
88
What does DNA and RNA stand for, and what makes them different
deoxyribo nucleic acid
ribo nucleic acid
therefore, their building blocks are nucleotides
DNA is missing and oxygen (where RNA has an OH group, DNA has just an H)
89
What is the structure of a nucleotide
- phosphate group
- sugar
- base
90
What are the bonds between nucleotides
phosphodiester bonds
91
How is DNA bonded
from 5' carbon to 3' carbon, and upside down on the other side
92
What bases of nucleotides need to be paired together
DNA:
A-T
G-C
RNA:
A-U
G-C
93
What does the noncovalent bond do for a protein
this keeps the original shape in tact, and structure determines function
94
What can disrupt the noncovalent bonds in a protein, and what would happen
pH, temperature, and salt concentration can disrupt noncov. bonds and change the shape of proteins, making them no longer work correctly
95
What bonds a macromolecule with other molecules
noncovalent bonds
96
What are examples of each of these units:
subunits turn into macromolecules turn into macromolecular assembly
subunits (amino acids/nucleotides)
go to
macromolecules (proteins/RNA molecule)
go to
macromolecular assembly (ribosome)
97
What is entropy
entropy is the gradual decline into disorder
98
Does entropy always increase or decrease
increase
99
What does catabolic mean
breaking down large molecules into smaller ones and releasing energy
100
What does anabolic mean
making large molecules from smaller ones and needing energy input
101
What does metabolism need
catabolic and anabolic pathways that are catalyzed by enzymes
102
How does metabolism work
food molecules are turned into building blocks and energy (through catabolic rxn) and then turned into cell molecules (through anabolic rxn)
the energy is transported by activated carriers from being made (catabolic) to being used (anabolic)
103
What is a catalyst
a feature (usually enzymes of proteins) that increases the rate of a chemical reaction
104
T/F Biological systems lack order
false, biological systems are highly ordered
105
What is OiLRiG
Oxidation is Loss of electrons
- the charge gets increased by one
Reduction is Gain of electrons
- the charge gets reduced by one
106
What is a spontaneous rxn
one where energy is lost
107
T/F Redox reactions produce energy
true! this energy is made from these reactions and the cells use the energy
108
What do enzymes do a catalysts
they reduce the amount of activation energy that is needed for a rxn to start (the small mound before rolling)
109
T/F Enzymes have an affect on deltaG and K
false, enzymes do not affect either of these
110
What is deltaG
G is the free energy, so delta G is the change in total energy in the system
111
What does -deltaG mean
the rxn IS energetically favorable
- spontaneous
- releases energy
- ball down hill
112
What does +deltaG mean
the rxn IS NOT energetically favorable
- not spontaneous
- needs input of energy
- pushing ball up hill
113
What is rxn coupling
when one reaction can help boost another one into happening
- seen when the bigger rxn has a -deltaG and releases energy
- this energy that is releases can push the deltaG rxn into happening
- -deltaG has to be a greater number than deltaG in order to compensate and push the ball all the way up the hill
114
What is a chemical equilibrium
This is where the concentrations of the reactants and products reach a stable point and will flow equally forward and backward in the rxn
115
What is k and what is the formula
the equilibrium constant
[products]/[reactants]
116
What does it mean if k > 1
there's more product when at equilibrium
117
What does it mean if k < 1
there's more reactant when at equilibrium
118
What is the relationship between k and deltaG
when k gets bigger, -deltaG goes even more negative
when k gets smaller, +deltaG gets bigger
k^Gv
KvG^
119
What are activated carriers
these store and transfer energy in a form cells can use
120
What is the most widely used activated carrier
ATP
121
When ATP is too high/low, what is used as an intermediate energy store
creatine as creatine phosphate
122
What is phosphoryllation
when the last phosphate of ATP is transferred to other molecules
this happens when ATP is too high, so the phosphate is transferred to creatine to be stored
when ATP is too low, the creatine-phosphate storage is combined with ADP to make more
123
Is turning ADP into ATP pos or neg deltaG
this is positive deltaG bc the rxn requires energy to form the ATP
124
Is turning ATP into ADP and creatine-phosphate pos or neg deltaG
this is -deltaG bc the rxn releases energy
125
What two molecules are activated carriers of electrons
NADH and NADPH
126
What is the cycle of NADPH to NADP+
NADPH is used as a reducing agent
- allows A to reduce to A-H
NADP+ is left and takes H back
- B-H oxidized to B
NADPH again
127
What are the oxidizing and reducing agents for electrons
NAD+ is the oxidizing agent
NADPH is the reducing agent
128
Is dehydration synthesis (condensation) energetically favorable
no, this is reuiqring energy so its deltaG
129
Is hydrolysis energetically favorable
yes, this released energy so its -deltaG
130
What is different about synthesizing DNA, RNA, and polynucleotides, and what is it called
they require so much energy that they have to create their own in the process in order to complete the synthesis
this energy is called nucleoside triphosphate as energy
