exam 1 Flashcards
sex biology
male female intersex
gender
characteristics of females and males
-usually socially constructed
gender identity
felt sense of identity
-cisgender, transgender, nonbinary
gender expression
how one presents itself
sexual orientation
who one is attracted to
heterosexual
attracted to opposite sex
gender roles
the set of social expectations that accompany identify as male or female
- masculinity
-femininity
gender role beliefs
- traditional
- equalitarian
- transitional
traditional gender role beliefs
girls are generally expected to dress in typically feminine ways
males are expected to be strong, aggressive and bold
equalitarian gender role beliefs
support equal rights, roles and responsibilities for men and women
transitional gender role beliefs
acceptable for women to obtain male roles but they should still do typical female roles
gender role conformity (behaviors)
how you act regardless of what people think
gender role conflict
distress that gender creates for you (feeling pressured to conform to gender roles or create distress based on gender roles
minimalist gender differences
differences between men and women are minimal and unimportant
maximalist gender differences
difference between men and women are vast
essentialism gender differences
differences between men and women inherit and biologically different
non essentialism gender differences
differences are due to changeable aspects of society and experience
evolutionary perspective on gender differences
gender comes from your biology and nature
social-cultural perspective
sex comes from how you are raised (nurture and environment)
social structural perspective
societies view of sex and gender and how they look and are expected to act (biology+environment)
- power and hierarchy exist which creates structure
commons method for look at gender in early psych
looking at birth size and specific areas of the brain
1894-1936 research in early psych
early research designed to show differences in intelligence
1936-1954 research in early psych
masculinity and feminity as personality traits
- much focus on how to measure masculinity and feminity
attitude interest anaylsis survey
456 item inventory w increase subject areas that played you on a continuum of masculinity and feminity
Minnesota multiphasic personality inventory
masculinity-femininity scale
- femininity scale was validating on gay men
projective tests
you see lines and have to finish the drawing
1954-1982 research in early psych
sex typing and androgyny
- masculinity and femininity as separate constructs = not ends of a spectrum
what is agency, independence, assertiveness, instrumentality considered?
masculine
what is commonality, nurturing, relationship centered and expressiveness considered?
feminine
bem sex role inventory
measured peoples masculine and feminine personality traits
bem’s categories
low masculinity and low femininity = undifferentiated
high masculinity and high femininity = femine
high masculinity and low femininity = masculine
high masculinity and high femininity = androgenous
problems with bem
culturally defined by expectations of the time
not everyone falls under these categories
self report bias
she created the list on her own
limitations of self report
conforming to what the resources might want you to say
1982 - present gender as a social category
nonbinary
socially constructed
definitions and understanding
intersectionality
based on multiple social identities
main argument of evolutionary perspective
sex differences evolve in other species why not ours too
-Men and women have different physical capabilities
goal of evolutionary perspective
to pass on your genes
natural selection
idea that we have to survive long enough to get the best chance to pass on genes
sexual selection
reproduction = being selective on who and where you reproduce.
paternal uncertainity
males don’t really know whose offspring it is whereas women know /have certainty
number of offspring
Women can’t have that many offspring so they need to invest in who they are reproducing w
men can have numerous offspring
sexual dimorphism
men and women have physical differences
chromosomes
certain traits/things that lie on chromosomes that are linked to differences in males and females
research support of evolutionary perspective
- sexual dimorphism
- chromosomes
- body, shape, size
- brain
- hormones
- partner choice
hormones (evolutionary perspective)
increase testosterone linked to increase aggressiveness behavior
problems with research on evolutionary perspective
differences overestimated and misinterpreted
cause of PMS
women’s medical issues can get spun off as emotional
- may occur in small % of women
- may be related to self silencing - not expressing emotions
- may be related to cultural views of menustration
social-cultural perspective
sex affects physiological characteristics, everything else is the enviroment
- purely the nurture part of the nature vs nurture debate
-suggests that differences come from experiences
social learning theory
all gender-related behaviors are learned through reinforcement and punishment of ourselves or similar others
learning through others occurs through
- observing or direct instruction
- close or distant sources
reinforcement
anything that increases a likelihood of a behavior
punishment
anything that decreases a likelihood of a behavior
positives of social learning theory
a lot of gender is learned through this theory
- helps to understand why beliefs vary from person to person
step 1 of research
form a question
step 2 of research
search literature
step 3 of research
form a hypothesis
step 4 of research
create an operational definition
step 5 of research
collect and analyze data
step 6 of research
purpose a theory or revise
3 types of hypothesis
- descriptive 2. correlational 3. casual
construct
actual thing we want to measure
operationalize
put it into measurable terms
variable
varies across people/ something we are looking at in the study
validity
accuracy
construct validity
are we measuring what we say we are measuring
you cant have validity without reliablity
internal validity
confidence level in a cause-effect study (does it have have a casual effect? if yes then = internal)
external validity
generalizability, how does it apply outside study - population, external, ecological
reliability
consistency - does measurement remain consistent over time
external population validity
generalizes to real people
external ecological validity
generalizes to the real world
convenience samples
easy to get but dont accurately describe population
self selected samples (self selection bias)
people who sign up in the study are somehow different from people who are randomly selected
representative samples
random selection
higher sample size
unrepresentative samples
convenience samples
self selected samples
random selection
every participant has an equal chance to participate in study
observational methods
vary in research involvement and deception levels
what does correlational and experimental methods want to test for
tests for statistical significance = we want to be that our study results are not due to chance variations
problems with descriptive questions
reactivity (changing the way you act because you are being observed)
observer bias
self report issues
ethics
these could increase external validity (general table to real world)
correlational methods
measures the relationship between 2 things that co-occur
-no manipulation
strength (magnitude)
how well can you predict outcome
-1.00 < r > 1.00
r statistic
R of 0 = no prediction (mostly chance)
R of 1.0= perfect positive correlation
R of -1.0 = perfect negative correlation
directionality problem
we do not know what causes which
does A cause B or B cause A
third variable problem
C cause A and B
third variable that can impact correlation
test for causality
does a change in the independent variable cause a change in the dependent
independent variable
the one being manipulated
dependent
outcome variable, the one being measured
does IV cause DV?
yes
factorial experiments
include more than one IV
allows us to identify moderating variables
blind experiment
the participant doesnt know what condition they are in
random assigment
equal chance of being assigned to any group in the experiment (control vs treatment)
-minimizes error
control of extraneous variables
nothing varies between conditions except the manipulated
- minimize experimental error
control group
groups that don’t get the treatments
- comparison group
experimental research vs correlational
experimental research is higher in internal validity when well done
correlational research is higher in generalizability to the real world when well done
gender schema theory
we have a schema on what it means to be male or female and we reject or accept info if it fits or if it doesnt
schema
mental representation or structure of a particular object situation or role that organizes our perceptions about that thing
gender schema
ideas that we have as a whole for what it means to be female or male, transgender, gat ect.
-hard to change our ideas and beliefs (schemas)
problems w social cultural
there are biological differences
doesn’t account for where these things come from
doesn’t explain why there are cross-cultural similarities in sex differences
goals of social structural perspective
- explains how differences develop over history and throughout the lifespan
- predict how differences will occur across cultures and time periods
- explain why stereotypes become prescriptive or things the individual should do
- connect the society to the individual and vice versa
social role theory
men and women historically have been divided into different roles
- based on biology
- based on culture
-traits required for these roles become expected and desirable
how are roles developed?
- reward and punishment
- adoption of traits valued by social group
- finding oneself in a particular role and enacting trait
culturally how do roles change?
structure across cultures
unique roles
prescriptive stereotypes
a stereotype describes a typical behavior but when there is no penalty if someone breaks it
what determines assigned sex at birth
genitalia and chromosomes, hormones
develop process (age) in gender
at 12 months= they can recognize males and females but typically rely on hair length
24 months = gender labeling
3 years = gender roles/ categories = male vs female careers
6 years = gender constancy
gender consistency
others retain gender even when taking on superficial opposite sex characteristics
social identity processes
we develop a string of social identity that defines a lot based on categories we belong to
explicit stereotypes
ones that we know we hold
implicit stereotypes
ones that we arent aware that we hold but impact our behavior
transgender identity development
through gender dysphoria (discomfort with your biological sex)
newer research following transgenders needs to be
consistent, persistent, insistent
research for non conforming children found that
family environment = those with supportive families show low depression, body dysmorphia, low sucidicality
those with low support - Increase homelessness, depression, body dysmorphia, suicide.
protective factors for transgender identity development
- have a good school policy and sports policy
- better staff training
gender affirming care
kids who experience this most persisted in gender switches and higher levels of well being
puberty blocking hormones
can start around age 16 to delay puberty or prevent puberty changes
risks of puberty-blocking hormones
fertility issues and can affect bone density
benefit of puberty-blocking hormones
lower depression and anxiety, high levels of well-being, decreased suicidality, persisting gender identity
insurance coverage and cost of transgender medical treatment
often not covered and not available for those in low income
parents and gender role beliefs
parental gender role beliefs show a small relationship but significant to children’s gender role beliefs
ways beliefs are passed down
modeling
different treatment - treat each kid differently (boy or girl, youngest, oldest)
opportunities - what you sign up for (girls ballet and boys football)
monitoring friends and activities (dating rules for girls but not for girls)
factors that don’t reduce early gender segregation
encouragement to do otherwise
culture
factors that reduce early gender segreation
smaller groups and less choice
-more likely to play with gender other than our own in smaller groups
- less social judgment with fewer people around
activity preferences = girls vs boys
girls play more collaboratively and boys play rougher
cross gender play
kids who don’t conform to cisgender play experience more social judgement
when does gender segregation peak
early to middle childhood
what do gender schemas influence
self-identity, activity preferences, attitudes, and behaviors
social identity
refers to seeing one self as part of a group
- ethnicity, sex, sports team
