Exam 1 Flashcards
The six levels of organization of the body
chemical, cells, tissues, organs, organ systems, organism
Anabolism
To build
Catabolism
To break down
What three things does development include
Differentiation/specialization of cells, growth, and reproduction
Hyperplasia
Proliferation, increase in number of cells
Hypertrophy
Increase in cell size
What are the three basic nutrients required for life
Water, energy, and micronutrients (V&M)
Hormeorhesis
The orchestrated or coordinated control in metabolism of body tissues necessary to support a psychological state
What are the four requirements for life
Oxygen, nutrients, Narrow range of temp, Narrow range of atmospheric pressure
Sagittal plane
Divides left vs right sides; midsagittal, parasagittal, or longitudinal
Forntal plane
Divides anterior (front) vs posterior (rear); also called coronal
Transverse plan
Divides upper vs lower; also called cross section
What allows for specilization and is seen in every level of A&P
Compartmentalization
Pleural cavity surrounds
The lungs
Peritoneum surrounds
The organs in the abdominal cavity
What is the role of serous (serosa) membranes
Thin membranes that cover organs/walls; similar to saran wrap, acts to separate; helps avoid friction
Isotope
Contains an equal number of protons, but a different number of neutrons in the nuclei
What causes an isotope to be radioactive
They decay from a less stable form to a more stable form
How are radioactive isotopes detected
Decay causes emissions of alpha, beta, or gamma particles that are detectable
How are stable (non radioactive) isotopes detected
By mass spectrometry
What are the three types of chemical reactions
Synthesis, decomposition, exchange
What are the three key inorganic compounds
Water, salts, acids/bases
Acids
Donate H+ in solution, have a lower pH
Bases
Donate OH- or accept H+ in solution; have a higher pH
Buffer
Solution of a weak acid and its conjugate base, act to soften blow and equalize things
Two types of acidosis and how they occur
Metabolic occurs when reactions generate CO2 or acidic compounds or loss of base while respiratory is when low respiration fails to exhale CO2
Two types of alkalosis and how they occur
Respiratory is when hypervenilation blows off too much CO2 raising blood pH and metabolic often is due to diarrhea and loss of HCl
What are the 5 important monosaccharides
Hexoses (6C): glucose, fructose, galactose, pentoses (5C): ribose, and deoxyribose
What are the three important disaccharides and what bonds do they have
Sucrose: glucose and fructose bind together
Lactose: galactose and glucose bind together
Maltose: two glucose monosaccharides bind
What are the three important polysaccharides
Starch, glycogen, and cellulose
Hydroxyl
Polar; components of all four types of organic compounds; involved in dehydration synthesis and hydolysis reactions
Carboxyl
Found in FA, AA, and other acids
Methly
Found w/in AA
Phosphate
Found w/in phospholipids and nucleotides
Glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) examples
Hyaluronic acid, heparan sulfate, dermatan sulfate, chondroitin sulfate
Saturated FA
Linear, have a higher melting point than unsaturated; straight
Unsaturated FA
Kinked chain, more fluid; double bonds bend the chain so they dont stack as tightly, therefore have a lower melting point
What is the precursor for steroid hormones and prostaglandins
Cholesterol
What are the big four of the phospholipids
Phosphatidylserine, phosphatidylcholine, phosphatidylethanolamine, and phosphatidylinositol
How does the delta system nomenclature for lipids work
Carbons are counted from the methyl (omega) end
What are the four different shapes of proteins
Primary, secondary, tertiary, quaternary
What type of reaction forms a peptide bond
A dehydration condensation reaction
What is a peptide bond
Bond between AA
What are enzymes classified as
Proteins
What are the function of proteins
Structural, hormonal, buffers, electrolyte transport, bind water, bind CHO, energy source (de-amination)
What three things do nucleotides need
A phsophate head, a sugar, a nitrogen containing base
What bond is present between bases
Hydrogen
Three components of a cell membrane
Phospholipid bilayer, cholesterol, embedded proteins
The cell membrane allows for compartmentalization of of what three fluids
Intracellular fluid (ICF), intercellular fluid (ECF), interstitial fluid (IF)
What model describes the structure of the plasma membrane as a mosaic of components that give the membrane a fluid character
Fluid mosaic model
What is in the fluid mosaic model
Phospholipids, cholesterol, proteins, and CHO
What are the three integral membrane proteins
Channel proteins, receptors, and glycoproteins
What are glycoproteins
Proteins covalently bonded to CHO
What are glycoproteins responsible for
Cell identity/recognition
What is the glycocalyx
A dense, gel like meshwork that surrounds the cell constituting a physical barrier for any object to enter the cell
What cell structure has an important role in immune function cell-cell recognition, communication, and intercellular adhesion
Glycocalyx
The cell membrane is _____ permeable
Selectivelt
What are the two types of passive transport
Diffusion/osmosis (permeable, concentration gradient) and facilitated transport/diffusion (not normally permeable, concentration gradient, specialized transport)
What are the two different types of transporters
Channel proteins and carrier proteins
How do channel proteins work
They are less selective and usually let more than one thing through
How do carrier proteins work
They are more selective only allowing a particular molecule or group of molecules to pass
Where in the body is there a higher affinity for GLUTs (glucose transporters)
In the brain needs it to compete w/ the rest of the body’s need for glucose
What is hydrostatic pressure
The force exerted on the capillary walls by the volume of fluid w/in the intravascular space, this forces fluid out of cavities and large particles can’t make it out
What is the flow of hydorstatic pressure
Higher to lower
Does the arterial or the venous side of a capillary have higher pressure due to capillary fluid exchange and hydrostatic pressure
Arterial side is high pressure venous side is low pressure
What is edema
A buildup of swelling because of a blockade or an increase in permeability
What is active transport
Movement of particles up a concentration gradient that requires energy
What is endocytosis and what type of transport is it
Engulfs and brings in as an intracellular vesicle and requires ATP this is active transport
What is pinocytosis
Type of endocytosis that involves “cell drinking” or internalizing of fluid + contents
What is phagocytosis
Type of endocytosis that involves cell eating or ingesting of large particles
What is exocytosis
A type of active transport that involves vesicles in a cell, membranes of vesicle and cell wall fuse contents are released into extracellular space
What is the endoplasmic reticulum
A series of membrane bound nuclear membrane w/ lots of SA for embedded proteins and reactions
What is the RER responsible for
Protein synthesis
How do proteins get to the golgi apparatus
From the RER proteins are exported through vesicles
What is the SER responsible for
Lipid synthesis
In steroid producing cells like in the testes and ovaries, what organelle is abundant
SER for lipid synthesis
What are the two sides of the golgi apparatus
Cis which recieves vesicles from the ER and trans which releases new vesicles
What is the puprose of the golgi apparatus
A stack of membranes to sort, modify, and send proteins to target site also performs post transciptional modifications
What is a lysosme
“Membrane bound bag of TNT”/large vesicle containing hydrolyic enzymes
What is autophagy
“Self eating”/The lysosomal digestion of the cells own components
What are phagolysosomes
Phagocytized material (bacteria) vesicle fuses w/ lysosome vesicles that get internalized, fused, and killed/ killing chamber
What is autolysis
Cell self destruction that is digested from the inside
What is apoptosis
Programmed cell death avoids inflammation since contained
What is the purpose of the mitochondria being highly folded
Higher SA for more cellular respiration and making ATP
What does mitochondria contain that other organelles do not
Its own DNA
What is the endosymbiosis theory
Proposes that mitochondria originated when a bacterial cell took up residence inside another cell
What is the evidence for the endosymbiosis theory in mitochondria
It has an outer membrane lipid bilayer and an inner membrane lipid bilayer
What are peroxisomes
Membrane bound vesicles that play a role in detoxification
What does catalase do in peroxisomes
Catalase catalyzes reactive oxygen species (ROS) which can cause damage to organelles and molecules
What is oxidative stress in basic terms
When reactive oxygen molecules build up and cause damage and is a theory for aging
What is the purpose of the cytoskeleton
Structural framework needed for shape, motility, transport, polarization, reproduction, and attachment
What are the three fibrous proteins of the cytoskeleton
Microtubules, microfilaments, and intermediate filaments
What gives polarity to a cell
Cytoskeleton
What three important components do microtubules make up
Cillia, flagella for the locomotion in sperm cells, and centrioles for cell division
What are the functions of microtubules
Cell motility, mitosis, intracellular transport, cell shape, and resist cell compression
What are the two microfilament components of muscle cells
Actin ratchet w/ myosin
What is the purpose of microfilaments
Cell contraction, movement, transport, and division
What are intermediate filaments composed of
Fibrous subunits of keratin wound into a rope
What is the purpose of intermediate filaments
Cell shape and structure, resist tension, anchor organelles w/in cells and anchor cells to each other and extracellular membrane
What is the organization of DNA w/in the nucleus
DNA wraps around a histone becoming a nucleosome, nucleosomes are wound together becoming a chromatin, chromatin gets wound together and becomes a chromosome
What are the two steps in protein synthesis
Transcription and translation
What speciality might focus on studying all of the structures of the ankle and foot
Regional anatomy
What is the smallest independently functioning unit of an organism
Cell
A collection of similar tissues that performs a specific function is an
Organ system
ATP is an important molecule because it does what
A process whereby new cells are formed to replace worn out cells
Humans have the most urgent need for a continuous supply of
oxygen
CJ is stuck in her car during a bitterly cold blizzard. Her body responds to the cold by
Breaking down stored energy
Stimulation of the heat loss center causes
Sweat glands to increase their output
What is the position of the body when it is in the normal anatomical position
The body standing upright w/ the feet at shoulder width and parallel, toes forward, upper limbs held out to each side, and palms of the hands facing out
Where is the lumbar region
Superior to the popliteal region
What are the four elements that make up more than 95% of the body’s mass
Oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen
What characteristics that gives an element its distinctive properties
Protons
Nitrogen has an atomic number of seven so how many electron shells does it likely have
Two
A molecule of ammonia contains one atom of nitrogen and three atoms of hydrogen are linked w/
Polar covalent bonds
A substance formed of crystals of equal numbers of cations and anions held together by ionic bonds is called
Salt
What kind of energy is stored in a foot of snow on a steep roof
Potential energy
What does a typical decomposition reaction look like
AB turns into A+B
What combination of atoms is most likely to result in a chemical reaction
Hydrogen and hydrogen
What is the process that is occuring when chocolate chips sink to the bottom of pancake mix
Suspension
What does a higher blood pH mean
The blood is alkaline
What organic compound do brain cells primarily rely on for fuel
Glucose
A pentose sugar is a part of the monomer used to build which type of macromolecule
Nucleic acids
The abiligy of an enzymes active sites to bind only substrates of compatible shape and charge is known as
Specificity
Because ion channels are embedded w/in the membrane they are examples of what
Integral proteins
What are ion pumps and phagocytosis both examples of
Active transport
Cytoplasm is to cytosol as a swimming pool containing chlorine and flotation toys is to
The water
What is a function of the rough ER
Production of proteins
What structure could be found w/in the nucleolus
Ribosomes
Place the following structures in order from least to most complex organization chromatin, nucleosome, DNA and chromosome
DNA, nucleosome, chromatin, chromosome
How many letters of an RNA molecule in sequence does it take to provide the code for a single AA
3
What phase is characterized by preparation for DNA synthesis
G1
What is a primary function of tumor suppressor genes
Stop certian cells from dividing
What type of stem cell gives rise to red and white blood cells
Hematopoietic
What do differentiated cells in a developing embryo derive from
Ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm
What type of cells are arranged in a single layer and look tall and narrow and the nucleus is located close to the basal side of the cell
Stratified
Which type of epithelial tissue specializes in moving particles across its surface and is found in airways and lining of the oviduct
Stratified columnar
Connective tissue is made of which three essential components
Cells, ground substance, and protein fibers
What kind of connective tissue specializes in storage of fat
Adipose tissue
In adults new connective tissue cells originate from the
Mesenchyme
Myocytes develop from what
Myoblasts
Striations, cylindrical cells, and multiple nuclei are found in
Skeletal muscle only
What is found in abundance in skeletal muscle cells
Mitochondria
What is not a cardinal sign of inflammation
Fever
Atrophy refers to what
Loss in mass
Endocrine glands do what
Secrete chemical messengers that travel in the bloodstrem
A newly developed pesticide has been observed to bind to an intracellular hormone receptor if ingested residue from this pesticide could disrupt levels of
Thyroid hormone
After a car accident w/ no injuries an individual experiences pupil dilation, increased heart rate, and rapid breathing what type of endocrine system stimulus did this individual receive
Neural
What hormone contributes to the regulation of the body’s fluid and electrolye balance
Antidiuretic hormone
Iodide ions cross from the bloodstream into follicle cells via what
Active transport
What can result in hyperparathyroidism
Fractures
What secretory cell type is found in the adrenal medulla
Chromaffin cells
What responses are a part of fight or flight response
Pupil dilation, increased oxygen supply to the lungs, and suppressed digestion
What is the production of melatonin inhibited by
Exposure of bright light
The production of FSH by the anterior pituitary is reduced by which hormone
Inhibin
If an autoimmune disorder targets the alpha cells production of which hormone would be directly affected
Glucagon
The walls of the atria produce which hormone
Atrial natriuretic peptide
Athletes may take synthetic EPO to boost their what
Blood oxygen levels
What embryonic germ layer does the anterior pituitary develop from
oral ectoderm
What types of cancer come at an increase risk when BRCA1 and BRCA2 are present
Breast, pancreas, ovarian, and prostate
What are totipotent stem cells
Found in early embryos and can become any cell or whole organism
What is pluripotent stem cells
Can become any tissue
What are multipotent stem cells
Can be differentiate into any cell w/in a lineage
What are oligopotent stem cells
Can form a few cell types w/in a lineage
What are unipotent stem cells
Specialized cells that can only make more of its own cell type
What type of stem cells does bone marrow have
Hematopoietic, endothelial, and mesenchymal
What are transcription factors
Proteins that bind to specific genes and promote or inhibit expression of that gene
What is the response element in transcription factors
Short sequences of DNA w/in a gene promoter or enhancer region that bind specific transcription factors and regulate expression of that gene
How do steroid hormones exert their functions
Their receptors
What is epithelial tissue
Cells specialized for exchange or barrier including sheets and glands
What is connective tissue
Relatively few cells embedded in ECM that connects, supports, and anchors things in the body
What does cardiac muscle have
Intercalated dics and gap junctions
Specifications of smooth muscle tissue
Non striated, singular nucli, inner circular, and outer longitudinal
What are the four tissue membranes
Mucous, serous, cutaneous, and synovial
What is the purpose of intercalated disks
They join them w/ adjacent cells as well as allowing passage of electrical activity throughout creating a conduit from one cell to the next
What does the functional syncytium have
Intracellular attachments
What is the function of CT
Encapsulates organs and lines joints
What is the function of epithelial membranes
Anchored to underly CT
What does the basement membrane of epithelial tissue consist of
Basal lamina and reticular lamina
What are the functions of epithelial cells
Contains a barrier as the 1st line of defense, protection, transport, secretion, holds cell junctions, and contains polarization, different organelles, cilia, microvilli, and cell volume
What are the three types of cell cell junctions
Tight, anchoring, and gap
What are tight junctions
Barrier, fence, or belt ex: blood brain barrier
What are anchoring junctions
Plaques or patches
What are the three types of anchoring junctions
Desmosomes, hemi desmosomes, and zonula adherens
What are desmosomes primarily made of
Cadherin cell:cell
What are hemi desmosomes consist of
Integrins and cadherins cell:ECM
What are zonula adherens attached to
Actin
What type of passage do gap junctions have
Open passage
Where is simple squamous epithelia found and what is its function
Endothelium, lining of alveoli in lungs, part of the kidney, and mesothelium, its function is allowing diffusion
What is the function of the goblet cell
Secrete mucus and is made of mucin that holds water
What type of cell is the goblet cell
Columnar
What is stratified epithelia used for
Protection and to fluff
What do melanocytes make
Melanin and pass it on to granules
What is albinism
An organism that has no or defective tyrosinase
or melanin
Which glands have ducts
Exocrine
What are the different gland structures
Simple, compound, tubular, coiled, or branched
What are the three methods of secretion
Merocrine, apocrine, and holocrine
What is mercrine secretion
Exocytosis the cell remains intact
What is apocrine secretion
Decapitation secreation the apical portion of the cell is released
What is holocrine secretion
The cell is destroyed and either sluffs or bursts
What does sebaceous glands make and secrete
They secrete oil that is made out of lipids
What is CT primarily made of
Ground substance
What are the three main categories of CT
Connective tissue proper, supportive CT, and fluid CT
What are the two types of CT proper
Loose and dense
What fixed cells are in CT
Fibroblasts, adipocytes, and mesenchymal
What wandering cells are in CT
Macrophages, mast cells, lymphocytes, plasma cells, and neutrophils
What is unilocular
There is only one chamber in the adipocyte
What is multilocular
There are multiple chambers in the adipocyte
What are mast cells
Degranulate, histamine, and heparin
What are the three main types of fibers found in CT
Collagen, elastic fiber, and reticular fiber
What is parenchyma
Functional part of an organ, blood vessels, and nerves
What is stroma
Supporting CT
What is the function of loose CT
Protect, insulate, shock absorption, and allows diffusion
What is found in loose CT
Adipose, areolar, and reticular tissue
What does dense CT have more of
Collagen
What are the two types of dense CT
Regular which has parallel fibers and irregular which has a random direction of fibers
Where is cartilage found
Where bones meet together
What is a unique aspect of cartilage
It is avascular (no blood supply)
What type of cells is embedded in cartilage
Chondrocytes
What is perichondrium
Dense irregular CT that encapsulates cartilage
What are the three types of cartilage
Hyaline, fibrocartilage, and elastic cartilage
What is the function of hyaline cartilage
Provides support w/ some flexibility
What is the function of fibrocartilage
Provides some compressibility and can absorb pressure
What is the function of elastic cartilage
Provides firm but elastic support
What is hydroxyapatite
Natural mineral form of calcium apatite
What are the two parts of bone
Spongy which is found at the top and compact which is found in the middle
What does periosteum surround
The outside of the bone
What does endosteum surround
The inside of the bone
What type of ossification does flat bones have
Intramembranous
What type of ossification do long bones have
Endochondral
What three cell types make up the hematopoietic stem cells in bone marrow
Platelets, RBCs, and Leukocytes in that order of quantity
What does lymph ECF lack
RBCs
What are the components of the lymphatic system
Lymphatic fluid, lymphatic vessels, lymphocytes, and lymphoid tissues/organs
What happens when you eat a very fatty meal
There is a large amount of lympth material presence on your digestional organs due to the amount of lipids presence
What is the epimysium
A dense irregular CT that surrounds the entire muscle
What is perimysium
A thinner CT layer that bundles muscle fibers into a fascicle
What is endomysium
A fine CT layer that surrounds each muscle fiber
What are schwann cells
Neuron associated cells that secrete myelin that wraps around the axon to form sheaths
What do myelin sheaths do the axon
Provides an insulted axon to support and propagate actions potentials
What do glial cells do in the nervous system
Support the nervous system
What are astrocytes
Supports the structure of the nervous system, regulates ion concentration, and maintains neurotransmitter uptake
What are oligodendrocytes
Myelin secreting cells in the central nervous system
What is microglia
Macrophages of the nervous system
What are the 5 cardinal signs of inflammation
Redness, heat, pain, swelling, and loss of function
What is necrosis
Random cell death that causes inflammation
What do hormones produced by the endocrine gland bind to
Receptors on target cells
What are the the organs and glands associated w/ the endocrine system
Pituitary gland, thyroid, adrenal gland, pancreas, uterus, ovaries, nd testes
What are amine hormones
AA w/ modified groups
What are peptide hormones
Short chains of linked AA
What are protein hormones
Long chains of linked AA
What are steriod hormones
Derived from lipid cholesterol
What is the function of the pituitary gland
Produces and secretes hormones that maintain body function
What is the function of the thyroid
Produces and secretes hormones that maintains the metabolic rate, growth, and development of the body
What is the function and location of the adrenal glands
Located on the top of both kidneys it produces and secretes hormones that maintain metabolism, the immune system, BP, and stress responses
What is the function of the pancreas
Produces and secretes insulin to maintain blood sugar
What two hormones are produced by the posterior pituitary
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) and oxytocin
What hormones are produced by the anterior pituitary
Growth hormone (GH), prolactin (PRL), thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH), adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), follicle stimulating hormone (FSH), and luteinizing hormone (LH)
What is the function, target, and releasing hormone of GH
Promotes growth of body tissues, targets the liver, bone, and muscles, and is triggered by the release of GHRH
What is the function, target, and releasing hormone of prolactin
Promotes milk production, targets the mammary glands, and is triggered by the release of PRH
What is the function, target, and releasing hormone of TSH
Stimulates thyroid hormones release, targets the thyroid gland, and is triggered by the release of TRH
What is the function, target, and releasing hormone of ACTH
Stimulates hormone release by adrenal cortex, targets adrenal glands, and is triggered by the release of CRH
What is the function, target, and releasing hormone of LH
Stimulates androgen production by gonads, targets the repro system, and is triggered by the release of GnRH
What is the function, target, and releasing hormone of ADH
Stimulates water reabsorption by kidneys, targets the renal tubules and is triggered by the release of ADH from the hypothalamus
How do lipid soluble hormones come in and affect the cell
The steroid hormone diffuses through the plasma membrane and binds to its receptor in the cytoplasm the hormone then enters the nucleus and triggers gene transcription
How do water soluble hormones come in and affect the cell
The hormone binds to a membrane receptor that activates a G protein that in turn activates adenylyl cyclase which then catalyzes a conversion of ATP to cAMP this goes and activates protein kinases which activates proteins
What are other 2nd messengers
Ca ions, DAG, and IP3
What does DAG do
Activates protein kinases
What does IP3 do
Triggers Ca release from SER
What is downregulation
Reduction the number of receptors available
What is upregulation
Increase the number of receptors available
What is a permissive interactions
Presence of a hormone permits a response to another hormone
What is a synergistic interactions
More than one hormone causes a greater response then either hormone individually
What is an antagonistic interaction
One blocks the effects of the other
What is HHP
Hypothesal Hypothalmo Portal system is a portal system between the anterior and posterior pituitary
What hormone causes the secretion of GH and where does it come from
GHRH that is stimulated by the hypothalamus
What does GH do in the body
Glucose sparing effect, growth effects, and diabetogenic effect
What is the glucose sparing effect
Breaks down adipose cells to store as fat fueling growth effects
What are the targets of growth effects
Bone cells, muscle cells, nervous system cells, immune systems cell
What is the diabetogenic effect
GH stimulates liver to break down glycogen into glucose fueling growth effects IGF-1 is released from the liver during this process
What is the function of IGF-1
It further stimulates growth effects and triggers the hypothalamus to secrete GHIH
