Exam 1 Flashcards
(279 cards)
1
Q
The six levels of organization of the body
A
chemical, cells, tissues, organs, organ systems, organism
2
Q
Anabolism
A
To build
3
Q
Catabolism
A
To break down
4
Q
What three things does development include
A
Differentiation/specialization of cells, growth, and reproduction
5
Q
Hyperplasia
A
Proliferation, increase in number of cells
6
Q
Hypertrophy
A
Increase in cell size
7
Q
What are the three basic nutrients required for life
A
Water, energy, and micronutrients (V&M)
8
Q
Hormeorhesis
A
The orchestrated or coordinated control in metabolism of body tissues necessary to support a psychological state
9
Q
What are the four requirements for life
A
Oxygen, nutrients, Narrow range of temp, Narrow range of atmospheric pressure
10
Q
Sagittal plane
A
Divides left vs right sides; midsagittal, parasagittal, or longitudinal
11
Q
Forntal plane
A
Divides anterior (front) vs posterior (rear); also called coronal
12
Q
Transverse plan
A
Divides upper vs lower; also called cross section
13
Q
What allows for specilization and is seen in every level of A&P
A
Compartmentalization
14
Q
Pleural cavity surrounds
A
The lungs
15
Q
Peritoneum surrounds
A
The organs in the abdominal cavity
16
Q
What is the role of serous (serosa) membranes
A
Thin membranes that cover organs/walls; similar to saran wrap, acts to separate; helps avoid friction
17
Q
Isotope
A
Contains an equal number of protons, but a different number of neutrons in the nuclei
18
Q
What causes an isotope to be radioactive
A
They decay from a less stable form to a more stable form
19
Q
How are radioactive isotopes detected
A
Decay causes emissions of alpha, beta, or gamma particles that are detectable
20
Q
How are stable (non radioactive) isotopes detected
A
By mass spectrometry
21
Q
What are the three types of chemical reactions
A
Synthesis, decomposition, exchange
22
Q
What are the three key inorganic compounds
A
Water, salts, acids/bases
23
Q
Acids
A
Donate H+ in solution, have a lower pH
24
Q
Bases
A
Donate OH- or accept H+ in solution; have a higher pH
25
Buffer
Solution of a weak acid and its conjugate base, act to soften blow and equalize things
26
Two types of acidosis and how they occur
Metabolic occurs when reactions generate CO2 or acidic compounds or loss of base while respiratory is when low respiration fails to exhale CO2
27
Two types of alkalosis and how they occur
Respiratory is when hypervenilation blows off too much CO2 raising blood pH and metabolic often is due to diarrhea and loss of HCl
28
What are the 5 important monosaccharides
Hexoses (6C): glucose, fructose, galactose, pentoses (5C): ribose, and deoxyribose
29
What are the three important disaccharides and what bonds do they have
Sucrose: glucose and fructose bind together
Lactose: galactose and glucose bind together
Maltose: two glucose monosaccharides bind
30
What are the three important polysaccharides
Starch, glycogen, and cellulose
31
Hydroxyl
Polar; components of all four types of organic compounds; involved in dehydration synthesis and hydolysis reactions
32
Carboxyl
Found in FA, AA, and other acids
33
Methly
Found w/in AA
34
Phosphate
Found w/in phospholipids and nucleotides
35
Glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) examples
Hyaluronic acid, heparan sulfate, dermatan sulfate, chondroitin sulfate
36
Saturated FA
Linear, have a higher melting point than unsaturated; straight
37
Unsaturated FA
Kinked chain, more fluid; double bonds bend the chain so they dont stack as tightly, therefore have a lower melting point
38
What is the precursor for steroid hormones and prostaglandins
Cholesterol
39
What are the big four of the phospholipids
Phosphatidylserine, phosphatidylcholine, phosphatidylethanolamine, and phosphatidylinositol
40
How does the delta system nomenclature for lipids work
Carbons are counted from the methyl (omega) end
41
What are the four different shapes of proteins
Primary, secondary, tertiary, quaternary
42
What type of reaction forms a peptide bond
A dehydration condensation reaction
43
What is a peptide bond
Bond between AA
44
What are enzymes classified as
Proteins
45
What are the function of proteins
Structural, hormonal, buffers, electrolyte transport, bind water, bind CHO, energy source (de-amination)
46
What three things do nucleotides need
A phsophate head, a sugar, a nitrogen containing base
47
What bond is present between bases
Hydrogen
48
Three components of a cell membrane
Phospholipid bilayer, cholesterol, embedded proteins
49
The cell membrane allows for compartmentalization of of what three fluids
Intracellular fluid (ICF), intercellular fluid (ECF), interstitial fluid (IF)
50
What model describes the structure of the plasma membrane as a mosaic of components that give the membrane a fluid character
Fluid mosaic model
51
What is in the fluid mosaic model
Phospholipids, cholesterol, proteins, and CHO
52
What are the three integral membrane proteins
Channel proteins, receptors, and glycoproteins
53
What are glycoproteins
Proteins covalently bonded to CHO
54
What are glycoproteins responsible for
Cell identity/recognition
55
What is the glycocalyx
A dense, gel like meshwork that surrounds the cell constituting a physical barrier for any object to enter the cell
56
What cell structure has an important role in immune function cell-cell recognition, communication, and intercellular adhesion
Glycocalyx
57
The cell membrane is _____ permeable
Selectivelt
58
What are the two types of passive transport
Diffusion/osmosis (permeable, concentration gradient) and facilitated transport/diffusion (not normally permeable, concentration gradient, specialized transport)
59
What are the two different types of transporters
Channel proteins and carrier proteins
60
How do channel proteins work
They are less selective and usually let more than one thing through
61
How do carrier proteins work
They are more selective only allowing a particular molecule or group of molecules to pass
62
Where in the body is there a higher affinity for GLUTs (glucose transporters)
In the brain needs it to compete w/ the rest of the body's need for glucose
63
What is hydrostatic pressure
The force exerted on the capillary walls by the volume of fluid w/in the intravascular space, this forces fluid out of cavities and large particles can't make it out
64
What is the flow of hydorstatic pressure
Higher to lower
65
Does the arterial or the venous side of a capillary have higher pressure due to capillary fluid exchange and hydrostatic pressure
Arterial side is high pressure venous side is low pressure
66
What is edema
A buildup of swelling because of a blockade or an increase in permeability
67
What is active transport
Movement of particles up a concentration gradient that requires energy
68
What is endocytosis and what type of transport is it
Engulfs and brings in as an intracellular vesicle and requires ATP this is active transport
69
What is pinocytosis
Type of endocytosis that involves "cell drinking" or internalizing of fluid + contents
70
What is phagocytosis
Type of endocytosis that involves cell eating or ingesting of large particles
71
What is exocytosis
A type of active transport that involves vesicles in a cell, membranes of vesicle and cell wall fuse contents are released into extracellular space
72
What is the endoplasmic reticulum
A series of membrane bound nuclear membrane w/ lots of SA for embedded proteins and reactions
73
What is the RER responsible for
Protein synthesis
74
How do proteins get to the golgi apparatus
From the RER proteins are exported through vesicles
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What is the SER responsible for
Lipid synthesis
76
In steroid producing cells like in the testes and ovaries, what organelle is abundant
SER for lipid synthesis
77
What are the two sides of the golgi apparatus
Cis which recieves vesicles from the ER and trans which releases new vesicles
78
What is the puprose of the golgi apparatus
A stack of membranes to sort, modify, and send proteins to target site also performs post transciptional modifications
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What is a lysosme
"Membrane bound bag of TNT"/large vesicle containing hydrolyic enzymes
80
What is autophagy
"Self eating"/The lysosomal digestion of the cells own components
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What are phagolysosomes
Phagocytized material (bacteria) vesicle fuses w/ lysosome vesicles that get internalized, fused, and killed/ killing chamber
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What is autolysis
Cell self destruction that is digested from the inside
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What is apoptosis
Programmed cell death avoids inflammation since contained
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What is the purpose of the mitochondria being highly folded
Higher SA for more cellular respiration and making ATP
85
What does mitochondria contain that other organelles do not
Its own DNA
86
What is the endosymbiosis theory
Proposes that mitochondria originated when a bacterial cell took up residence inside another cell
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What is the evidence for the endosymbiosis theory in mitochondria
It has an outer membrane lipid bilayer and an inner membrane lipid bilayer
88
What are peroxisomes
Membrane bound vesicles that play a role in detoxification
89
What does catalase do in peroxisomes
Catalase catalyzes reactive oxygen species (ROS) which can cause damage to organelles and molecules
90
What is oxidative stress in basic terms
When reactive oxygen molecules build up and cause damage and is a theory for aging
91
What is the purpose of the cytoskeleton
Structural framework needed for shape, motility, transport, polarization, reproduction, and attachment
92
What are the three fibrous proteins of the cytoskeleton
Microtubules, microfilaments, and intermediate filaments
93
What gives polarity to a cell
Cytoskeleton
94
What three important components do microtubules make up
Cillia, flagella for the locomotion in sperm cells, and centrioles for cell division
95
What are the functions of microtubules
Cell motility, mitosis, intracellular transport, cell shape, and resist cell compression
96
What are the two microfilament components of muscle cells
Actin ratchet w/ myosin
97
What is the purpose of microfilaments
Cell contraction, movement, transport, and division
98
What are intermediate filaments composed of
Fibrous subunits of keratin wound into a rope
99
What is the purpose of intermediate filaments
Cell shape and structure, resist tension, anchor organelles w/in cells and anchor cells to each other and extracellular membrane
100
What is the organization of DNA w/in the nucleus
DNA wraps around a histone becoming a nucleosome, nucleosomes are wound together becoming a chromatin, chromatin gets wound together and becomes a chromosome
101
What are the two steps in protein synthesis
Transcription and translation
102
What speciality might focus on studying all of the structures of the ankle and foot
Regional anatomy
103
What is the smallest independently functioning unit of an organism
Cell
104
A collection of similar tissues that performs a specific function is an
Organ system
105
ATP is an important molecule because it does what
A process whereby new cells are formed to replace worn out cells
106
Humans have the most urgent need for a continuous supply of
oxygen
107
CJ is stuck in her car during a bitterly cold blizzard. Her body responds to the cold by
Breaking down stored energy
108
Stimulation of the heat loss center causes
Sweat glands to increase their output
109
What is the position of the body when it is in the normal anatomical position
The body standing upright w/ the feet at shoulder width and parallel, toes forward, upper limbs held out to each side, and palms of the hands facing out
110
Where is the lumbar region
Superior to the popliteal region
111
What are the four elements that make up more than 95% of the body's mass
Oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen
112
What characteristics that gives an element its distinctive properties
Protons
113
Nitrogen has an atomic number of seven so how many electron shells does it likely have
Two
114
A molecule of ammonia contains one atom of nitrogen and three atoms of hydrogen are linked w/
Polar covalent bonds
115
A substance formed of crystals of equal numbers of cations and anions held together by ionic bonds is called
Salt
116
What kind of energy is stored in a foot of snow on a steep roof
Potential energy
117
What does a typical decomposition reaction look like
AB turns into A+B
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What combination of atoms is most likely to result in a chemical reaction
Hydrogen and hydrogen
119
What is the process that is occuring when chocolate chips sink to the bottom of pancake mix
Suspension
120
What does a higher blood pH mean
The blood is alkaline
121
What organic compound do brain cells primarily rely on for fuel
Glucose
122
A pentose sugar is a part of the monomer used to build which type of macromolecule
Nucleic acids
123
The abiligy of an enzymes active sites to bind only substrates of compatible shape and charge is known as
Specificity
124
Because ion channels are embedded w/in the membrane they are examples of what
Integral proteins
125
What are ion pumps and phagocytosis both examples of
Active transport
126
Cytoplasm is to cytosol as a swimming pool containing chlorine and flotation toys is to
The water
127
What is a function of the rough ER
Production of proteins
128
What structure could be found w/in the nucleolus
Ribosomes
129
Place the following structures in order from least to most complex organization chromatin, nucleosome, DNA and chromosome
DNA, nucleosome, chromatin, chromosome
130
How many letters of an RNA molecule in sequence does it take to provide the code for a single AA
3
131
What phase is characterized by preparation for DNA synthesis
G1
132
What is a primary function of tumor suppressor genes
Stop certian cells from dividing
133
What type of stem cell gives rise to red and white blood cells
Hematopoietic
134
What do differentiated cells in a developing embryo derive from
Ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm
135
What type of cells are arranged in a single layer and look tall and narrow and the nucleus is located close to the basal side of the cell
Stratified
136
Which type of epithelial tissue specializes in moving particles across its surface and is found in airways and lining of the oviduct
Stratified columnar
137
Connective tissue is made of which three essential components
Cells, ground substance, and protein fibers
138
What kind of connective tissue specializes in storage of fat
Adipose tissue
139
In adults new connective tissue cells originate from the
Mesenchyme
140
Myocytes develop from what
Myoblasts
141
Striations, cylindrical cells, and multiple nuclei are found in
Skeletal muscle only
142
What is found in abundance in skeletal muscle cells
Mitochondria
143
What is not a cardinal sign of inflammation
Fever
144
Atrophy refers to what
Loss in mass
145
Endocrine glands do what
Secrete chemical messengers that travel in the bloodstrem
146
A newly developed pesticide has been observed to bind to an intracellular hormone receptor if ingested residue from this pesticide could disrupt levels of
Thyroid hormone
147
After a car accident w/ no injuries an individual experiences pupil dilation, increased heart rate, and rapid breathing what type of endocrine system stimulus did this individual receive
Neural
148
What hormone contributes to the regulation of the body's fluid and electrolye balance
Antidiuretic hormone
149
Iodide ions cross from the bloodstream into follicle cells via what
Active transport
150
What can result in hyperparathyroidism
Fractures
151
What secretory cell type is found in the adrenal medulla
Chromaffin cells
152
What responses are a part of fight or flight response
Pupil dilation, increased oxygen supply to the lungs, and suppressed digestion
153
What is the production of melatonin inhibited by
Exposure of bright light
154
The production of FSH by the anterior pituitary is reduced by which hormone
Inhibin
155
If an autoimmune disorder targets the alpha cells production of which hormone would be directly affected
Glucagon
156
The walls of the atria produce which hormone
Atrial natriuretic peptide
157
Athletes may take synthetic EPO to boost their what
Blood oxygen levels
158
What embryonic germ layer does the anterior pituitary develop from
oral ectoderm
159
What types of cancer come at an increase risk when BRCA1 and BRCA2 are present
Breast, pancreas, ovarian, and prostate
160
What are totipotent stem cells
Found in early embryos and can become any cell or whole organism
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What is pluripotent stem cells
Can become any tissue
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What are multipotent stem cells
Can be differentiate into any cell w/in a lineage
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What are oligopotent stem cells
Can form a few cell types w/in a lineage
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What are unipotent stem cells
Specialized cells that can only make more of its own cell type
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What type of stem cells does bone marrow have
Hematopoietic, endothelial, and mesenchymal
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What are transcription factors
Proteins that bind to specific genes and promote or inhibit expression of that gene
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What is the response element in transcription factors
Short sequences of DNA w/in a gene promoter or enhancer region that bind specific transcription factors and regulate expression of that gene
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How do steroid hormones exert their functions
Their receptors
169
What is epithelial tissue
Cells specialized for exchange or barrier including sheets and glands
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What is connective tissue
Relatively few cells embedded in ECM that connects, supports, and anchors things in the body
171
What does cardiac muscle have
Intercalated dics and gap junctions
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Specifications of smooth muscle tissue
Non striated, singular nucli, inner circular, and outer longitudinal
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What are the four tissue membranes
Mucous, serous, cutaneous, and synovial
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What is the purpose of intercalated disks
They join them w/ adjacent cells as well as allowing passage of electrical activity throughout creating a conduit from one cell to the next
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What does the functional syncytium have
Intracellular attachments
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What is the function of CT
Encapsulates organs and lines joints
177
What is the function of epithelial membranes
Anchored to underly CT
178
What does the basement membrane of epithelial tissue consist of
Basal lamina and reticular lamina
179
What are the functions of epithelial cells
Contains a barrier as the 1st line of defense, protection, transport, secretion, holds cell junctions, and contains polarization, different organelles, cilia, microvilli, and cell volume
180
What are the three types of cell cell junctions
Tight, anchoring, and gap
181
What are tight junctions
Barrier, fence, or belt ex: blood brain barrier
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What are anchoring junctions
Plaques or patches
183
What are the three types of anchoring junctions
Desmosomes, hemi desmosomes, and zonula adherens
184
What are desmosomes primarily made of
Cadherin cell:cell
185
What are hemi desmosomes consist of
Integrins and cadherins cell:ECM
186
What are zonula adherens attached to
Actin
187
What type of passage do gap junctions have
Open passage
188
Where is simple squamous epithelia found and what is its function
Endothelium, lining of alveoli in lungs, part of the kidney, and mesothelium, its function is allowing diffusion
189
What is the function of the goblet cell
Secrete mucus and is made of mucin that holds water
190
What type of cell is the goblet cell
Columnar
191
What is stratified epithelia used for
Protection and to fluff
192
What do melanocytes make
Melanin and pass it on to granules
193
What is albinism
An organism that has no or defective tyrosinase
or melanin
194
Which glands have ducts
Exocrine
195
What are the different gland structures
Simple, compound, tubular, coiled, or branched
196
What are the three methods of secretion
Merocrine, apocrine, and holocrine
197
What is mercrine secretion
Exocytosis the cell remains intact
198
What is apocrine secretion
Decapitation secreation the apical portion of the cell is released
199
What is holocrine secretion
The cell is destroyed and either sluffs or bursts
200
What does sebaceous glands make and secrete
They secrete oil that is made out of lipids
201
What is CT primarily made of
Ground substance
202
What are the three main categories of CT
Connective tissue proper, supportive CT, and fluid CT
203
What are the two types of CT proper
Loose and dense
204
What fixed cells are in CT
Fibroblasts, adipocytes, and mesenchymal
205
What wandering cells are in CT
Macrophages, mast cells, lymphocytes, plasma cells, and neutrophils
206
What is unilocular
There is only one chamber in the adipocyte
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What is multilocular
There are multiple chambers in the adipocyte
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What are mast cells
Degranulate, histamine, and heparin
209
What are the three main types of fibers found in CT
Collagen, elastic fiber, and reticular fiber
210
What is parenchyma
Functional part of an organ, blood vessels, and nerves
211
What is stroma
Supporting CT
212
What is the function of loose CT
Protect, insulate, shock absorption, and allows diffusion
213
What is found in loose CT
Adipose, areolar, and reticular tissue
214
What does dense CT have more of
Collagen
215
What are the two types of dense CT
Regular which has parallel fibers and irregular which has a random direction of fibers
216
Where is cartilage found
Where bones meet together
217
What is a unique aspect of cartilage
It is avascular (no blood supply)
218
What type of cells is embedded in cartilage
Chondrocytes
219
What is perichondrium
Dense irregular CT that encapsulates cartilage
220
What are the three types of cartilage
Hyaline, fibrocartilage, and elastic cartilage
221
What is the function of hyaline cartilage
Provides support w/ some flexibility
222
What is the function of fibrocartilage
Provides some compressibility and can absorb pressure
223
What is the function of elastic cartilage
Provides firm but elastic support
224
What is hydroxyapatite
Natural mineral form of calcium apatite
225
What are the two parts of bone
Spongy which is found at the top and compact which is found in the middle
226
What does periosteum surround
The outside of the bone
227
What does endosteum surround
The inside of the bone
228
What type of ossification does flat bones have
Intramembranous
229
What type of ossification do long bones have
Endochondral
230
What three cell types make up the hematopoietic stem cells in bone marrow
Platelets, RBCs, and Leukocytes in that order of quantity
231
What does lymph ECF lack
RBCs
232
What are the components of the lymphatic system
Lymphatic fluid, lymphatic vessels, lymphocytes, and lymphoid tissues/organs
233
What happens when you eat a very fatty meal
There is a large amount of lympth material presence on your digestional organs due to the amount of lipids presence
234
What is the epimysium
A dense irregular CT that surrounds the entire muscle
235
What is perimysium
A thinner CT layer that bundles muscle fibers into a fascicle
236
What is endomysium
A fine CT layer that surrounds each muscle fiber
237
What are schwann cells
Neuron associated cells that secrete myelin that wraps around the axon to form sheaths
238
What do myelin sheaths do the axon
Provides an insulted axon to support and propagate actions potentials
239
What do glial cells do in the nervous system
Support the nervous system
240
What are astrocytes
Supports the structure of the nervous system, regulates ion concentration, and maintains neurotransmitter uptake
241
What are oligodendrocytes
Myelin secreting cells in the central nervous system
242
What is microglia
Macrophages of the nervous system
243
What are the 5 cardinal signs of inflammation
Redness, heat, pain, swelling, and loss of function
244
What is necrosis
Random cell death that causes inflammation
245
What do hormones produced by the endocrine gland bind to
Receptors on target cells
246
What are the the organs and glands associated w/ the endocrine system
Pituitary gland, thyroid, adrenal gland, pancreas, uterus, ovaries, nd testes
247
What are amine hormones
AA w/ modified groups
248
What are peptide hormones
Short chains of linked AA
249
What are protein hormones
Long chains of linked AA
250
What are steriod hormones
Derived from lipid cholesterol
251
What is the function of the pituitary gland
Produces and secretes hormones that maintain body function
252
What is the function of the thyroid
Produces and secretes hormones that maintains the metabolic rate, growth, and development of the body
253
What is the function and location of the adrenal glands
Located on the top of both kidneys it produces and secretes hormones that maintain metabolism, the immune system, BP, and stress responses
254
What is the function of the pancreas
Produces and secretes insulin to maintain blood sugar
255
What two hormones are produced by the posterior pituitary
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) and oxytocin
256
What hormones are produced by the anterior pituitary
Growth hormone (GH), prolactin (PRL), thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH), adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), follicle stimulating hormone (FSH), and luteinizing hormone (LH)
257
What is the function, target, and releasing hormone of GH
Promotes growth of body tissues, targets the liver, bone, and muscles, and is triggered by the release of GHRH
258
What is the function, target, and releasing hormone of prolactin
Promotes milk production, targets the mammary glands, and is triggered by the release of PRH
259
What is the function, target, and releasing hormone of TSH
Stimulates thyroid hormones release, targets the thyroid gland, and is triggered by the release of TRH
260
What is the function, target, and releasing hormone of ACTH
Stimulates hormone release by adrenal cortex, targets adrenal glands, and is triggered by the release of CRH
261
What is the function, target, and releasing hormone of LH
Stimulates androgen production by gonads, targets the repro system, and is triggered by the release of GnRH
262
What is the function, target, and releasing hormone of ADH
Stimulates water reabsorption by kidneys, targets the renal tubules and is triggered by the release of ADH from the hypothalamus
263
How do lipid soluble hormones come in and affect the cell
The steroid hormone diffuses through the plasma membrane and binds to its receptor in the cytoplasm the hormone then enters the nucleus and triggers gene transcription
264
How do water soluble hormones come in and affect the cell
The hormone binds to a membrane receptor that activates a G protein that in turn activates adenylyl cyclase which then catalyzes a conversion of ATP to cAMP this goes and activates protein kinases which activates proteins
265
What are other 2nd messengers
Ca ions, DAG, and IP3
266
What does DAG do
Activates protein kinases
267
What does IP3 do
Triggers Ca release from SER
268
What is downregulation
Reduction the number of receptors available
269
What is upregulation
Increase the number of receptors available
270
What is a permissive interactions
Presence of a hormone permits a response to another hormone
271
What is a synergistic interactions
More than one hormone causes a greater response then either hormone individually
272
What is an antagonistic interaction
One blocks the effects of the other
273
What is HHP
Hypothesal Hypothalmo Portal system is a portal system between the anterior and posterior pituitary
274
What hormone causes the secretion of GH and where does it come from
GHRH that is stimulated by the hypothalamus
275
What does GH do in the body
Glucose sparing effect, growth effects, and diabetogenic effect
276
What is the glucose sparing effect
Breaks down adipose cells to store as fat fueling growth effects
277
What are the targets of growth effects
Bone cells, muscle cells, nervous system cells, immune systems cell
278
What is the diabetogenic effect
GH stimulates liver to break down glycogen into glucose fueling growth effects IGF-1 is released from the liver during this process
279
What is the function of IGF-1
It further stimulates growth effects and triggers the hypothalamus to secrete GHIH
