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BIOL 2230 > EXAM 1 > Flashcards

EXAM 1 Flashcards

endocrine and reproductive systems

1
Q

nervous system control of body functioning

A

uses electrical impulses (neurotransmitters)
responds rapidly, response lasts milliseconds
only stimulates excitable tissue (muscle and glands)

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2
Q

endocrine system control of body functioning

A

uses chemical messengers through the bloodstream (hormones), lag time before response, slower to adapt but lasts longer
stimulates target cells, changes the metabolic activity of the cell

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3
Q

exocrine glands

A

use ducts
-secretions!! (saliva, sweat, oils, etc)
-primarily works in digestive system (ex. pancreas)

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4
Q

endocrine glands

A

ductless
-secrete HORMONES
-highly vascularized glands
-chemical messengers travel through bloodstream

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5
Q

what galnd has both exocrine and endocrine functions?

A

the pancreas
-digestive function

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6
Q

what is the neuroendocrine link?

A

specific parts of the body have a strong connection between the nervous and endocrine system
-linked by the HYPOTHALAMUS
-hypothalamus and pituitary gland (master gland) are linked via infundibulum

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7
Q

how does the neuroendocrine link work?

A

signals from the hypothalamus activate the pituitary gland to release a hormone which goes into the bloodstream and affects another part of the body (long distance)

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8
Q

hormones

A

long distance chemical messengers that are produced in one part of the body and affect another part of the body
-does not affect the cell that produced the chemical!!!

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9
Q

autocrines

A

secretions prodiced by a cell that affect the activity of that cel
-self-regulating
-does not affect neighboring cells!!

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10
Q

paracrines

A

local signaling molecules that are secreted by a cell but only affect neighboring cells
-does not affect the cell that produced it!!!

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11
Q

pheromones

A

chemicals secreted by one organism that affect the activity of a different organism
- sweat is sexually attractive, fear

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12
Q

amino acid based, non-steroid, peptide-based hormones

A

majority of hormones that are derived from amino acids
-water soluble so they are easy to transport in bloodstream but need a receptor on outside of cell to pass through plasma membrane

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13
Q

steroid hormones

A

derived from cholesterol, lipid soluble
-can pass across plasma membrane but need receptor INSIDE the cell to keep them from leaving
-do not pass through bloodstream easily
-ONLY produced by gonads & adrenal cortex

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14
Q

eicosanoids

A

biologically active lipids (not true hormones)
-have localized effects

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15
Q

types of eicosanoids?

A

-prostaglandins (multiple effects in cells, ex. is in menstrual cycle)
-leukotrines (inflammatory response and immune system function)

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16
Q

target cells

A

any cell that has the receptor for a hormone
-hormones changes activity of this cell once binded to receptor

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17
Q

effects of target cells

A
  1. open or close ion channels to change permeability of cell and change membrane potential
  2. stimulate protein synthesis by activating DNA directly
  3. activate or deactivate enzymes by turning existing proteins on or off
  4. promote secretions by stimulating exocytosis
  5. stimulate mitosis
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18
Q

amino acid based hormone activation

A

indirect activation- binds to receptor and activates a protein on the inside of the cell to change the activity of cell

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19
Q

steroid based hormone activation

A

direct by diffusion across the lipid bilayer and binding to receptor in the nucleus

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20
Q

steroid action

A
  1. hormones secreted by an endocrine gland
  2. travels through the bloodstream to a target cell
  3. hormone difuses through the plasma membrane of the target cell
  4. binds with an intracellular receptor
  5. activated complex acts as a primer and binds to a specific receptor protein on DNA (different steroid activates different genes and cause different proteins to be produced)
  6. transcription is initiated which gives us mRNA
  7. mRNA leaves nucleus and goes to cytoplasm where it binds to a ribosome and is translated.
  8. new protein is produced (enzyme, structural protein, or export protein)
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21
Q

Cyclic AMP non-steroid action

A
  1. hormone is secreted by an endocrine gland and travels through the bloodstream by a target cell
  2. hormone will bind to a specific receptor on the outside surface of the cell which modifies it
  3. the modified receptor binds with G protein to activate it and the G protein activates an enzyme called adenylate cyclase
  4. adenylate cyclase generates cAMP from ATP and cAMP becomes the secondary messenger which then stimulates protein kinases
  5. protein kinase reactions cause existing proteins to be phosphorylated which will either activate or deactivate the proteins
  6. phosphodiesterase degrades cAMP and shuts the cycle off
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22
Q

PIP Calcium non-steroid action

A
  1. hormone is secreted by an endocrine gland and travels through the bloodstream to a target cell which binds to a receptor.
  2. modified receptor binds with a G protein and the G protein is activated.
  3. The activated G protein activates phospholipidase and it splits PIP2 into DAG and IP3.
  4. DAG activates protein kinase which causes phosphorylation of existing proteins.
  5. IP3 triggers release of calcium from endoplasmic reticulum and calcium acts as an additional messenger, catalyzing additional reactions in the body
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23
Q

What is the only peptide-based hormone that functions as a steroid?

A

Thyroid hormone

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24
Q

factors affecting hormone action

A

-hormone level in bloodstream
-# of receptors in or on target cells
-receptor affinity

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25
Q

hormone levels in the bloodstream

A

the more hormone in the bloodstream, the greater the activity

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26
Q

number of receptors in or on target cells

A

the more receptors we have, the greater the activity

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27
Q

receptor affinity

A

if a cell has strong affinity, it can be picked up from far away
the higher the affinity, the greater the activity

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28
Q

up regulation

A

continued exposure to a hormone results in more receptors for that so cells become more active
-stress causes a hormone to be produced so the cell will respond by increasing response to get back to homeostasis and the increased effect increases the receptors

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29
Q

down regulation

A

the continued release of a hormone decreases the number of receptors for that home
-increased hormone level DECREASES the effects of that hormone

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30
Q

permissiveness

A

one hormone requires a second hormone to be present in order to exert its fullest effect
Ex. thyroid hormone and sex maturation

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31
Q

synergism

A

two or more hormones produce the same effect and their combined effect is stronger
Ex. glucagon and epinephrine both increase blood glucose, they work stronger together

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32
Q

antagonism

A

two hormones work in opposition to one another to create feedback systems
Ex. glucagon and insulin raise and lower blood pressure

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33
Q

humoral mechanism for endocrine grand stimulation

A

changes in levels of something in the bloodstream or extracellular fluid that causes a gland to start functioning

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34
Q

neural mechanism for endocrine gland stimulation

A

nerve fibers stimulate and directly synapse with an endocrine gland and the neurotransmitter released activates the gland to secrete a hormone

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35
Q

hormonal mechanism for endocrine gland stimulation

A

an endocrine gland is activated by a hormone produced by a different endocrine gland

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36
Q

tropic hormone

A

a hormone whose target cell is another endocrine gland

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37
Q

pituitary gland

A

hypophysis

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38
Q

infundibulum

A

a stalk that extends off the hypothalamus
attaches the pituitary gland to the hypothalamus

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39
Q

thyroid

A

surrounds the trachea

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40
Q

parathyroid

A

embedded within the posterior thyroid

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41
Q

adrenal

A

on top of the kidneys

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42
Q

pancreas

A

in the abdominal cavity

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43
Q

gonads

A

testes in male and ovaries in female

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44
Q

pineal

A

in the brain

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45
Q

thymus

A

deep to sternum (not very active in adults

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46
Q

posterior pituitary- neurohypophysis

A

composed of neural tissue which is an outgrowth of the hypothalamus, extends off the infundibulum
- DOES NOT PRODUCE HORMONES -> only stores and releases hormones

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47
Q

anterior pituitary- adenohypophysis

A

composed of glandular tissue which is an out-pocketing of the oral cavity (Rathke’s pouch pit)
-DOES PRODUCE HORMONES

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48
Q

connection between anterior and posterior pituitary

A

visceral connection

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49
Q

hormones secreted by posterior pituitary

A
  1. oxytocin
  2. antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
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50
Q

oxytocin

A

“cuddle hormone”
-functions with smooth muscle contractions (in childbirth, contracts the uterine muscles)
-involved with milk ejection during nursing
-functions as an amnesiac
-works through positive feedback

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51
Q

antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

A

regulates water balance by targeting the kidney tubules and causing them to reabsorb more water into the body
-prevents urine formation
-alcohol inhibits ADH (why you have to pee a lot when you’re drunk)

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52
Q

hormones secreted by the anterior pituitary

A
  1. growth hormone (GH)
  2. thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
  3. adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
  4. gonadotropins (Follicle stimulating hormone- FSH & Luteinizing hormone- LH)
  5. prolactin (PRL)
  6. pro-opiomelanocortin (POMC)
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53
Q

growth hormone actions

A

-stimulates cell growth and division, protein synthesis, fat metabolism, and glucose conservation
-growth of bones and muscle

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54
Q

pituitary dwarfism

A

deficiency in GH in children
-children small in size

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55
Q

Giantism

A

excess GH in children
-overall large in size

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56
Q

Acromegaly

A

normal levels of GH as a child, but it increases as an adult
-large hands, feet, and face
Ex. Abe Lincoln

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57
Q

GH cascade

A
  1. Hypothalamus secretes GHRH and it affects somatotrope cells of the anterior pituitary and they begin GH synthesis.
  2. GH gets into the bloodstream and has both direct and indirect effects on target tissues.
  3. Increased amounts of circulating GH triggers production of growth hormone inhibiting hormone (somatostatin) which shuts off GHRH in order to stop production of GH
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58
Q

direct actions of growth hormone

A

-increase blood levels of fatty acids by taking fats from fat stores and putting them into the bloodstream
-stop glucose uptake and metabolism by leaving glucose in the bloodstream so it can go to active cells
-encourages breakdown of glycogen from the liver and release of gluocse into the bloodstream to increase amount of glucose available for energy

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59
Q

diabetogenic effect

A

breaking down of glycogen to release glucose
-direct action of growth hormone

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60
Q

indirect actions of growth hormone

A

operates through insulin-like growth hormones (IGFs):
-growth hormone stimulates the liver to produce IGFs
-IGFs stimulate uptake of amino acids from blood into cellular proteins
-stimulates uptake of sulfur into background matrix of cartilage

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61
Q

thyroid stimulation hormone (TSH)

A

also known as thyrotropin
stimulates the development and secretion of the thyroid gland

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62
Q

TSH cascade

A
  1. hypothalamus secretes thyroid releasing hormone (TRH) which causes thryotropic cells of the anterior pituitary to produce TSH.
  2. TSH activates the pituitary gland,
  3. Increased levels of TSH inhibit the pituitary gland and hypothalamus to shut off TRH and produce GHIH (growth hormone inhibiting hormone- somatostatin)
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63
Q

adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

A

stimulates the adrenal cortex to release corticosteroid hormones
-mostly glucocorticoids (aldosterone) which are involved with resisting stress

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64
Q

ACTH cascade

A
  1. The hypothalamus secretes corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH) which stimulates the corticotrope cells to release ACTH
  2. ACTH stimulates the adrenal cortex to release glucocorticoids
  3. Increased levels of glucocorticoids stop CHR and ACTH secretion stops.
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65
Q

what stressors promote CRH release?

A

fever, hypoglycemia

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66
Q

gonadotropins

A

regulate functions of the gonads
follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and Luteinizing hormone (LH)

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67
Q

FSH

A

stimulates gamete production
-eggs and sperm

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68
Q

LH

A

promotes production of gonadal hormones

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69
Q

male gonadotropins

A

-LH stimulates interstitial cells of the testes to produce testosterone which gives males secondary sex characteristics
-FSH stimulates sperm production

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70
Q

female gonadotropins

A

born with all eggs
-FSH stimulates ovum production
-LH triggers ovulation and promotes synthesis of ovarian hormones which lead to secondary sex characteristics
-FSH and LH regulate maturation of eggs which are kept in follicles in the ovaries

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71
Q

gonadotropin cascade

A
  1. at puberty, the hypothalamus secretes GnRH and this stimulates the gonadotrope cells f the anterior pituitary to secrete FSH and LH
  2. gonadotropins cause gonads to mature and begin producing their own hormones
  3. the increased levels of gonad hormones suppress FSH and LH by suppressing GnIH
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72
Q

prolactin

A

stimulates milk production by the mammary glands in the breasts
may enhance testosterone production in males

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73
Q

prolactin cascade during cycle

A
  1. high estrogen levels stimulate release of PRH from the hypothalamus and this stimulates lactotropes of the anterior pituitary to secrete prolactin by suppressing PIH production.
  2. Prolactin production is brief during ovarian hormone cycling (why your breasts get tender) but decreased estrogen at the end of cycle stimulates production of PIH from the hypothalamus.
  3. Prolactin production stops when PIH is produced.
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74
Q

Prolactin cascade during pregnancy

A
  1. HIgh estrogen levels turn off PIH and prolactin is triggers by PRL at the end of pregnancy. Milk starts to be produced.
  2. Baby suckling maintains PRL production
  3. Lack of suckling and return of normal hormone cycle brings about PIH production, and lack of prolactin stops milk production.
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75
Q

what is the largest pure endocrine gland in the body

A

thyroid gland

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76
Q

histological composition of thyroid gland

A

composed of follicles made up of epithelial cells called follicular cells and parafollicular cells

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77
Q

what do follicular cells produce

A

thyroglobulin- a protein that becomes an amino-acid based hormone

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78
Q

why is the thyroid gland unique

A

it both stores and secretes
-thyroglobulin is stored within the follicle as colloid

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79
Q

what makes up thyroid hormone

A

thyroglobulin + iodine (from our diet)

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80
Q

what do parafollicular cells produced

A

calcitonin- which is immediately secreted, it is not stored

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81
Q

what cells do not have receptors for thyroid hormone

A

brain
spleen
testes
uterus
thyroid

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82
Q

functions of TH

A

-increase basal metabolic rate and heat production through calorigenic effect (breakdown of glucose to generate heat and produce ATP
-maintains blood pressure by causing the production of aditional adrenergic receptors that are on teh surface of blood vessels and cause them to constrict
-regulates tissue growth and development
-maturation of reproductive organs

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83
Q

synthesis of TH

A
  1. anterior pituitary secretes TSH and this travels to the thyroid gland via blood vessels which triggers the production of thyroglobulin by follicular cells.
  2. Thyroglobulin is transported into the follicle and gets stored there while channels open to take in iodine and store it in the colloid.
  3. Thyroglobulin is iodized to form T1 and T2 and they combine to form T3 and T4
  4. T3 and T4 come out of the colloid and back into the follicle cells and are packaged into vesicles for exocytosis. Lysozomal enzymes free T3 and T4 into the bloodstream almost every organ in the body is affected.
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84
Q

why is the thyroid unique?

A

it can store the hormones that it produces.

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85
Q

Diurnal cycle

A

the thyroid can store its hormones for 2-3 months
-stored in the extracellular colloid
*TSH peaks before sleep and remains high at night (why college students get less sleep and gain weight)

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86
Q

TH feedback

A

-Increasing blood levels of T4 inhibit TSH production while low levels stimulate it
-Increased in body energy needs stimulates release of TRH (need is detected by hypothalamus -> TRH -> TSH)
-GHIH shuts off production of TH

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87
Q

which hormone is amino-acid based but acts like a steroid

A

Thyroid hormone
-T4 and T3 bind to transport proteins and are delivered to target cells, then they bind to intracellular receptors, DNA is activated and transcription results in new proteins

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88
Q

calcitolin

A

produced by parafollicular cells
- lowers blood calcium levels
- most important during rapid periods of skeleton growth and reformation (mainly during childhood and puberty)

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89
Q

actions of calcitonin

A

inhibits osteoclast activity (stops breakdown of bone)
stimulates calcium uptake and deposition into bone

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90
Q

calcitonin feedback

A

high calcium levels are humoral stimuli for increasing activity of C cells while low levels of calcium in the blood inhibits C cell activity

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91
Q

parathyroid gland

A

imbedded in the posterior portion of the thyroid gland (usually 4, sometimes 5, rarely there are 3)

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92
Q

histological composition of parathyroid gland

A

has two types of glandular cells
-oxyphil cells
-chief cells- secrete parathyroid hormone (PTH)

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93
Q

parathyroid hormone importance

A

most important hormone for controlling blood calcium levels in ADULTS
-antagonist to calcitonin: PTH increases blood calcium levels
-low levels of calcium have a humoral affect which activates chief cells to produce PTH

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94
Q

PTH actions

A

-stimulates osteoclasts to break down bone and release calcium into the bloodstream
-affects the kidneys by enhancing their reabsorption of calcium
-stimulates the intestines to absorb more calcium out of the food we’ve eaten
-promotes kidneys to convert viatmin D into its active form, calcitriol (D3), which helps us absorb calcium

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95
Q

adrenal glands

A

paired glands located on top of each kidney that are composed of a cortex and medulla
-they release hormones that help us resist stress

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96
Q

what is the adrenal cortex composed of

A

glandular epithelium/tissue

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97
Q

what is the adrenal medulla derived from

A

sympathetic nervous tissue

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98
Q

what are the 3 classes of corticosteroids

A

mineralocorticoids in the zona glomerulosa
glucocorticoids in the zona fasiculata
gonadocorticoids in the zona reticularis

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99
Q

what is the major hormone of mineralocorticoids

A

aldosterone (95% of all)

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100
Q

what do mineralocorticoids do?

A

regulate the electrolyte concentration of extracellular fluids
-most important electrolytes are sodium and potassium
-also helps to regulate water balance (osmotic gradients)

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101
Q

actions of mineralocorticoids

A

stimulates sodium reabsorption in the distal parts of kidney tubules (also from sweat, saliva, and gastric juice
- sodium can make an osmotic gradient which affects movement of water and other ions and effects blood volume and pressureh

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102
Q

how do mineralocorticoids affect blood volume and pressure

A

if sodium moves into the bloodstream, water follows and this adds more blood volume into the blood vessels and results in increased pressure against the vessel walls

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103
Q

mineralocorticoid feedback

A

humoral triggers cause an increase in aldosterone
-high potassium levels in blood
-low sodium levels in blood
-low blood volume
-low blood pressure

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104
Q

what is the most important mechanism of aldosterone production

A

renin-angiotensin mechanism

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105
Q

renin-angiotensin mechanism of aldosterone production

A

-the liver constantly produced a protein called angiotensionogen which is an inactive protein
-under the proper stimulate (low BP, low blood volume), the kidneys start to produce renin and this converts angiotensinogen to an active form called angiotensinogen II
-angiotensin II activates the zona glomerulosa of the adrenal cortex to produce aldosterone and this causes sodium reabsorption

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106
Q

plasma concentration mechanism for aldosterone production

A

when sodium levels in the blood are low and potassium levels are high, aldosterone is produced by zona glomerulosa

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107
Q

ACTH mechanism for aldosterone production

A

stress causes the hypothalamus to produce CRH which causes the anterior pituitary to produce ACTH, which causes the adrenal cortex to become active
-this mechanism only produces a very small amount

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108
Q

atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) mechanism for aldosterone production

A

stretch on the walls of the heart due to high blood pressure will release ANP and shut off the production of aldosterone
-decreases blood pressure

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109
Q

what is the only mechanism of aldosterone production that DECREASES blood pressure?

A

atrial natriuretic peptide mechanism

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110
Q

major hormone of glucocorticoids

A

cortisol- regulates energy metabolism in response to stress

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111
Q

actions of glucocorticoids

A

maintains blood sugar levels
-cortisol stimulates a process called gluconeogenisis
maintains blood volume
-prevents the uptake of water from the bloodstream by cells

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112
Q

what is gluconeogenisis

A

the production of new sugars from non-carbohydrate substances (like fats or proteins)

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113
Q

glucocorticoid feedback

A

CRH released by hypothalamus which promotes the release of ACTH. this activates the adrenal cortex to produce cortisol
-increased cortisol inhibits CRH release by the hypothalamus

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114
Q

what are the effects of stress (increased cortisol levels)

A

-increase gluconeogenisis
-liberate fatty acids for energy (taken out of storage)
-break down proteins into amino acids
-assist in vasoconstriction

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115
Q

what do gonadocorticoids produce

A

weak androgens (most common is DHEA)

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116
Q

what is dehyroepiandrosterone

A

DHEA is the precursor that gives rise to hormones like testosterone and estrogen
-helps time puberty

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117
Q

what does testosterone provide for women

A

sex drive
-increased libido

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118
Q

gonadocorticoids feedback

A

increased ACTH stimulates the production of the gonadocorticoids
-no shutoff mechanism

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119
Q

what are the hormones of the adrenal medulla

A

epinephrine and norepinephrine
-they combine to create adrenaline (synergists)

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120
Q

histological composition of adrenal medulla

A

chromaffin cells
-modified ganglion sympathetic neurons
-they produce norepinephrine and epinephrine which are released into the bloodstream

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121
Q

actions of epinephrine and norepinephrine

A

promoted by stress and stimulates sympathetic nervous system
-blood sugar rises
-blood vessels constrict
-heart beat increases
-blood pressure rises
-blood is diverted to brain, heart, skeletal muscle, and preganglionic sympathetic nerve endings in adrenal medulla (organs for figth or flight!)

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122
Q

pancreas

A

located in the abdominal cavity behind the stomach and connected to the small intestine

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123
Q

exocrine portion of pancreas

A

secretes substances into a duct that are used for digestion

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124
Q

endocrine portion of pancreas

A

some of the tissue of the pancreas secretes hormones that go directly into the bloodstream

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125
Q

histological composition of the exocrine portion of the pancreas

A

made up of acinar cells

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126
Q

histological composition of the endocrine portion of the pancreas

A

pancreatic islets (islets of langerhans)
-alpha cells produce glucagon
-beta cells produce insulin

127
Q

actions of glucagon

A

increases blood sugar levels
-functions on the liver to release glucose into the bloodstream
-breaks glycogen down into glucose
-synethesizes glucose from lactid acid and non-carbohydrate molecules

128
Q

feedback of glucagon

A

low blood glucose and/or high amino acid levels have a humoral effect on the pancreas and causes it to release glucagon
-sympathetic nervous stimulation promotes release and GHIH inhibits release

129
Q

insulin actions

A

lowers blood sugar levels
-stimulates fat and protein metabolism
-enhances membrane transport of glucose into cells
-inhibits breakdown of glycogen into glucose
-inhibits the conversion of amino acids or fats to glucose (gluconeogenisis)
promotes the oxidization of glucose of ATP production

130
Q

insulin feedback

A

high blood glucose has a humoral effect on the pancreas and stimulates beta cells to produce insulin
-parasympathetic nervous stimulation causes release
-hormonal influences also stimulate beta cells to produce insulin

131
Q

Gonads

A

male= testes
female=ovaries

131
Q

testosterone actions

A

-maturation and maintenance of male reproductive organs
-male secondary sex characteristics (facial hair, deep voice)
-increases sex drive
-sperm production

132
Q

estrogen actions

A

maturation and maintenance of female reproductive organs
-female secondary sex characteristics (breast development, deposition of adipose tissue)

133
Q

progesterone functions

A

fucntions with estrogen to promote breast development and cause cyclic changes in uterine lining to regulate the menstrual cycle

134
Q

feedback of sex hormones

A

regulated by gonadotropins

135
Q

pineal gland

A

extends from the roof og the 3rd ventricle in the diencephalon

136
Q

histological composition of the pineal gland

A

made up of cells called pinealcytes
-produce melatonin

137
Q

actions of melatonin

A

promotes drowsiness
inhibits sexual maturation (helps with timing of puberty)
-pinealocytes are suppressed when sun is up and active when sun is down

138
Q

thymus

A

gland beneath the sternum in the thoracic cavity
-size diminishes with age (most activity occurs early in life)

139
Q

hormones of the thymus

A

-thymoproteins
-thymic factor
-thymosins

140
Q

all hormones of the thymus functions…

A

function in immunity
-influence the development of white blood cells (T lymphocytes) that go out and recognize specific pathogens and attacks them
-stronger immunity when we’re young

141
Q

hormone the heart produces

A

ANP

142
Q

actions of ANP

A

inhibits aldosterone and changes the composition of urine by acting on the kidneys

143
Q

GI tract hormones

A

many hormones are produced that regulate digestive system activity

144
Q

hormones produced by the placenta

A

estrogen, progesterone, and hCG

145
Q

actions of placental hormones

A

exist only during oregnancy
-links maternal circulation with fetus
-takes over the ovaries and keeps the uterus nutrient rich and vascular

146
Q

hormone produced by the kidneys

A

erythropoitein

147
Q

erythropoitein functions

A

stimulates the kidneys ti produce red blood cells

148
Q

hormone produced by the skin

A

cholecalciferol

149
Q

cholecalciferol actions

A

activated by the liver and helps absorb calcium in the intestines
-this is the inactive form of vitamin D3

150
Q

hormone produced by adipose tissue

A

leptin

151
Q

leptin actions

A

as we store more and more fat in adipose tissue, it produces leptin
-acts on the amygdala to decrease appetite
-increases energy expenditure

152
Q

what embryonic layer do the (steroid hormones) gonads and adrenal cortex come from?

A

the mesoderm

153
Q

what embryonic germ layer do the amino acid hormone structures come from?

A

ectoderm and endoderm

154
Q

how does age change the rate of hormone production?

A

-women stop cycling and go through menopause
-men see a decrease in testosterone levels

155
Q

testes

A

male gonads that produce gametes (sperm)

156
Q

scrotum

A

muscular sac outisde the abdominal cavity that testes are stored in

157
Q

epididymis

A

where immature sperm is stored

158
Q

ductus deferens

A

pathway that carries sperm into the males body

159
Q

ejaculatory duct

A

connects vas deferens to the urethra

160
Q

urethra

A

pathway of sperm and urine out of the body

161
Q

penis

A

specialized copulatory organ that is outside the body
-allows deposition of gametes into the females body

162
Q

seminal vesicles

A

secrete alkaline fluid as a defense mechanism

163
Q

prostate gland

A

produces prostatic secretions
-increases in size with age

164
Q

bulbourethral gland

A

two of these (aka cowper’s glands)
-they secrete mucus and work as a lubricant
-known as pre-ejaculation

165
Q

lobules

A

divides the testes into compartments
-each has elaborate tubules known as seminiferous tubules

166
Q

seminiferous tubules

A

highly branched tubules
-the “factory”
-actual site of sperm production
-NOT MATURE SPERM

167
Q

tubulus rectus

A

each lobule has one of these that merge out to the rete testis, a channel between seminiferous and rete testis

168
Q

rete testis

A

hub of tubules, central hub of where all tubules connect

169
Q

efferent ductus

A

“exits from”
immediately leaving tubes from rete testes, carry immature sperm from the rete testes to epididymis

170
Q

epididymis

A

stores BILLIONS of sperm

171
Q

interstitial cells (of Leydig)

A

cells located between the seminiferous tubules
-activated by LH to produce testosterone which helps stimulate sperm production

172
Q

explain testicular blood flow

A

blood is supplied by testicular arteries and is drained by the testicular veins
-blood delivered to testes is COOLER

173
Q

what makes blood delivered to the testes colder?

A

the pampiniform plexus

174
Q

how is blood cooled by the time it reaches the scrotum?

A

as the arterial and venous blood pass each other, the heat from the arterial blood gets dissipated into the cooler venous blood and the arterial blood is cooled

175
Q

define the scrotum

A

a sac-like structure outside of the males body that consists of skin and a superficial fascia

176
Q

muscles of the scrotum

A

-via dartos and cremaster
involuntary muscles that contract when cold and relax when warm to move the testes closer and farther from the body
-helps maintain optimal temperature

177
Q

what temp is the scrotum kept at?

A

34 degrees celcius
-3 degrees below body temp

178
Q

3 regions of the penis

A
  1. head (glans) -> covered with prepuse “foreskin”
  2. shaft
  3. root
179
Q

circumcision

A

surgical removal of the prepuce (foreskin)
-some cultures remove this for hygiene reasons

180
Q

corpora cavernosa

A

two large bodies of erectile tissue that keep the urethra open when the penis fills with blood so sperm can pass through

180
Q

erection

A

change in size and rigidity of the penis

181
Q

corpus spongiosum

A

single smaller tissue at the bottom of the penis that surrounds the urethra

182
Q

erectile tissue

A

spongy networks of connective tissue, smooth muscle, and vascular space that fill with blood upon sexual arousal to make the penis larger and firmer
-collapses the veins that drain the penis and traps the blood

183
Q

epididymis

A

two of these accessory ducts
-billions of immature sperm stored here (come from the seminiferous tubules)
-sperm stays here unless enough sexual arousal occurs

184
Q

ductus (vas) deferens

A

two of these accessory ducts
-tubes that carry sperm from the epididymis up towards the urinary bladder/torso

185
Q

vasectomy

A

a surgical procedure where the vas deferens are cut and cauterized so sperm cannot be released
~99.9% effective

186
Q

ejactulatory duct

A

two of these accessory glands
-each ductus deferens empty into these short ducts
-connects to the urethra

187
Q

urethra

A

carries reproductive and urinary fluids
-urine is toxic to sperm
-sphincter at the end of bladder shuts off the opening to the bladder during sexual arousal

188
Q

how many days does it take sperm to acquire the ability to swim?

A

20 days
-they swim using flagella

189
Q

how long can sperm be stored?

A

7 months
-if not used, they are phagocytized

190
Q

seminal vesicles

A

two of these accessory glands
-they surround ejaculatory duct on each side
-paired organs that secrete alkaline fluid to neutralize acidic vagina

191
Q

prostate gland

A

located where the urethra starts
-secretes enzymes and nutrients upon stimulation
-senzymes cause activation of sperm and nutrients feed mitochondria to give them energy to swim

192
Q

bulbourethral glands “cowpers glands”

A

two of these
-tiny, pea sized glands that secrete mucus into semen
-cleans out residue left behind by urine
-provides lubrication to ease insertion into the females body

193
Q

what is semen

A

glands collectively secrete this
-bulbourethral glands are activated before the others and release pre-ejaculation

194
Q

erection phase

A

parasympathetic (POINT)
-involuntary
-visual stimulus for men

195
Q

Ejaculation phase

A

sympathetic (SHOOT)
-voluntary (must have sex or some sort of friction to cause this to happen)

196
Q

spermatogenesis

A

the production of spermatids in the seminiferous tubules
-males start to produce sperm at puberty and continue until death
~400 sperm per day (begins ay basal lamina and products are released into lumen)

197
Q

spermiogenesis

A

the modification of spermatids to become spermatozoa
-differentiation process

198
Q

parts of the spermatozoan

A

-head
-acrosome
-midpiece
-tail

199
Q

how many days does it take to go from a primary spermatocyte to an immature sperm

A

64-72 days

200
Q

head of the spermatozoan

A

genetic component
-where all DNA is

201
Q

acrosome of spermatozoan

A

the very end of the head
-a vesicle that helps get through the covering of the egg
-has acrosomal enzyme that is used in fertilization

202
Q

midpiece of the spermatozoan

A

hs lots of mitochondria that get nutrients from the prostate gland to make energy for the flagellum to contract

203
Q

tail of spermatozoan

A

cytoplasmic extention called the flagellum that makes the sperm swim

204
Q

sustentacular cells

A

AKA ‘sertoli’ or ‘nurse’ cells
-haploid sperm appear foreign to the body so the immune system tries to kill them, these cells protect the sperm

205
Q

actions of sertoli cells

A

-protect developing spermatocytes from the immune system by creating a blood-testes barrier in the male reproductive tract
-nourish dividing cells by having secretions to help the cells divide
-helps move cells to the lumen so they can be transported to the epididymis
-secretes sustentacular/testicular fluid which functions as a transport medium in the lumen and fills lumen of seminiferous tubules to help get the spermatids to the epididymis
-dispose of eliminated cytoplasm (get rid of defective sperm)
-regulate spermatogenesis

206
Q

role of FSH

A

-stimulates sertoli cells to release androgen-binding protein (ABP)
-ABP attaches to outside of spermatogonia & causes them to accumulate testosterone

207
Q

role of LH

A

helps with sperm production
-causes interstitial cells in the seminiferous tubules to secrete testosterone (also very small amount of estrogen)

208
Q

role of testosterone

A

-stimulates spermatogenisis (through binding of testosterone to ABP)
-inhibits GnRH (as testosterone levels increase, this shuts off GnRH which then inhibits gonadotropin release
-has anabolic effects on accessory reproductive organs (develops and maintains them)
-promotes male secondary sex characteristics (strong bones, increased muscle mass, hair production, oily skin, deep voice)
-boosts BMR (basal metabolic rate)
-influences behavior (increases sex drive and aggression)

209
Q

role of inhibin

A

produced by sustentacular cells when sperm count is high
-inhibits release of FSH and LH by inhibiting GnRH
-shuts off production of ABP and stops gonadotropin production

210
Q

ovaries

A

site where gametes are produced

211
Q

oviducts

A

pathway that carries eggs to the uterus
-site of fertilization (in the ampulla)

212
Q

uterus

A

thick-walled muscular organ that receives, retains, and nourishes the fertilized ovum
site of implantation and embryonic development/gestation

213
Q

vagina

A

female organ of copulation
where sperm are deposited
birth canal
passage for menstrual flow

214
Q

external genitalia

A

also called vulva
includes labias, mons pubis, clitoris, etc

215
Q

mammary glands

A

produce milk to nourish newborn
modified sweat gland

216
Q

where are the ovaries formed

A

in the ovarian cortex before birth

217
Q

follicular cells

A

first layer surrounding the oocyte

218
Q

granulosar cells

A

each subsequent layer above follicular

219
Q

primordial follicle

A

in the body when born
oocyte is surrounded by ONE layer of epithelial cells
women born with ALL the primordial follicles they will ever have
SOME start to ripen

220
Q

primary follicles

A

develops from a primordial follicle
TWO or more layers of cells around the oocyte
has both follicular and granulosar cells!

221
Q

secondary follicle

A

only one or two primary follicles develop into this each month
-will develop a fluid-filled cavity called an andrum

222
Q

graafian follicle/vesicular

A

generally, only one secondary follicle continues to mature into this
much larger in size, oocyte is pushed away from center and sits up on a stalk
appears like a blister on the surface of the ovary
ruptures to release oocyte and follicular fluid in a process called ovulation -> fills with blood to become corpus hemorrhagicum

223
Q

corpus luteum

A

ovarian follicle turns into this
a glandular structure which secretes hormones that get the uterus ready for implantation (specifically progesterone)
if fertilization occurs- this is maintained for a few months and then degenerate
if fertilized does NOT occur- this will degenerate right away

224
Q

corpus albecans

A

corpus luteum becomes this where or not fertilization occurs
-a scar on the ovary

225
Q

where is the ovulated oocyte released from the ovary into?

A

the peritoneal cavity
it gets released into the abdomen & ciliated fimbriae help it get to the uterus

226
Q

oocyte path to uterus?

A

ovary -> oviduct -> infundibulum -> ampulla -> isthmus -> uterus

227
Q

infundibulum

A

the closest part of oviduct to the uterus
has cilia which are stimulated to pulse and create a contraction to pull the egg into the oviduct (also what prevents sperm from getting in)

228
Q

ectopic pregnanyc

A

the fertilized egg will implant itself anywhere other than the uterus (typically in the oviduct)
- life-threatening to mom and baby

228
Q

body of uterus

A

central part
“pear shaped”
where fetus resides

228
Q

fundus

A

above where the oviducts meet
above the body

228
Q

ampulla

A

part of the oviduct
normal site of fertilization!

229
Q

cervix

A

“neck” of the uterus

230
Q

internal os

A

opening of cervix at the top
cervix & uterus

231
Q

external os

A

opening of cervix at the bottom
cervix & vagina

232
Q

cervical opening width

A

normally the width of a human hair
dilates to 10 cm during birth

233
Q

cervical plug

A

mucus that develops during pregnancy to block foreign things in the vagina from reaching the baby

234
Q

how does the uterus propel sperm toward the egg

A

it has rhythmic, reverse peristalsis

235
Q

perimetrium

A

outer layer of the uterine wall

236
Q

myometrium

A

middle layer of the uterine wall
-muscular layer
– involuntary smooth muscle

237
Q

endometrium

A

inner lining of uterine wall
- highly vascularized and glandular portion (has soft mucosal lining)

238
Q

stratum functionalis

A

innermost layer of the endometrium where implantation occurs
- if fertilization does NOT occur, this is what is built up and sloughed off

239
Q

stratum basalis

A

portion of the endometrium that is closest to the muscle
causes thickening and vascularization of the stratum functionalis
- hormones cause it to rebuild the stratum functionalis when it is sloughed off

240
Q

vagina

A

female organ of copulation that is the “receptive organ”
birth canal where baby passes through
passage for menstrual flow

241
Q

why does the vagina have an acidic environment

A

an immune function
-prevents bacteria and foreign bodies from getting in

242
Q

hymen

A

thin layer of tissue that covers the opening of the vagina
-most girls born without completely intact
- not a proper way to check for virginity

243
Q

mons pubis

A

fatty tissue on top of the pubic symphysis
prevents pain during intercourse
has many hair follicles

244
Q

labia majora

A

outer folds that do have hair follicles associated with it

245
Q

labia minora

A

inner folds that do not have hair follicles

246
Q

greater vestibular glands

A

associated with the walls of the vagina and labia minora
- parasympathetic impulses stimulate production of mucus to aid insertion of the penis upton sexual arousal
female counterpart to male bulbourethral gland

247
Q

clitoris

A

a collection of erectile epithelial tissue (cavernous tissue) which fills with blood upon sexual arousal
-MANY nerve endings

248
Q

perineum

A

the tissue between anus and vulva
often cut or torn during labor

249
Q

episiotomy

A

surgically cut the perineum before it tears for an easier healing process

250
Q

mammary galnds

A

both males and females have them but only functional in females due to hormonal regulation

251
Q

lobes

A

divide the mammary glands

252
Q

lobules

A

divides the lobes of the mammary glands

253
Q

alveoli

A

tiny sacs that produce milk

254
Q

lactiferous ducts

A

milk is carried through here from the lobules to the sinus

255
Q

lactiferous sinus

A

where milk is stored
beneath the nipple

256
Q

areola

A

colored area to guide the baby where to suck

257
Q

nipple

A

where the baby places its mouth to express milk

258
Q

oogenesis

A

the process of gamete production BEFORE birth
and then stops. will then start up again during puberty and end at menopause

259
Q

how many viable gametes?

A

only 500 viable gametes of the original 2 million primary oocytes will be ovulated
one per month for around 40 years

260
Q

how many oocytes get fertilized?

A

average is about 2- ones that actually finish meiosis II
**this is dependent on how many children you have

261
Q

what happens if fertilization DOES occur?

A

secondary oocyte completes meiosis II
produces one ovum and the second polar body
ovum is haploid and then becomes diploid as soon as the sperm combines with it
total produced= one ovum and three polar bodies

262
Q

what happens if fertilization DOES NOT occur?

A

the secondary oocyte degenerates and never finishes division (meiosis II)

263
Q

follicular phase

A

growth of a follicle (primordial follicle -> primary follicle -> secondary follicle -> graafian follicle)
includes everything prior to ovulation
14 days long in regular 28 day cycle
variability in length of menstrual cycle occurs here

264
Q

cell vs follicle

A

secondary follicle contains a primary oocyte at first, which develops into a secondary oocyte (this is what actually gets ovulated)
a graafian follicle always contains a secondary follicle

265
Q

ovulation phase

A

the ovary wall ruptures and the oocyte and corona go into the peritoneal cavity
only one secondary oocyte is ovulated

266
Q

what increases the chance of twins

A

genetics- twins skip a generation
age- as you get older, more likely

267
Q

luteal phase

A

includes everything after ovulation
this phase is ALWAYS 14 days long
the corpus hemorrhagicum forms and reabsorbs
the granulosa and theca cells make corpus luteum and that secretes progesterone and estrogen
either becomes placenta OR corpus albicans (scar)

268
Q

fraternal twins

A

produced from hyperovulation
genetically different and can be different sexes

269
Q

hyperovulation

A

where you ovulate more than one oocyte and each of them is fertilized by its own sperm

270
Q

identical twins

A

one oocyte is fertilized by one sperm but when it divides, it separates and produces two independent zygotes
genetically identicall and cannot be different sexes

271
Q

hormonal regulation of female prior to puberty

A

the ovaries produce SOME estrogen (which inhibits GnRH and prevents the production of FSH and LH)

272
Q

hormonal regulation of female during puberty

A

the hypothalamus becomes less sensitive, there is not enough estrogen to stop GnRH so FSH and LH start to be rhythmically produced
this causes menarchy

273
Q

why is there no regularity for your first few menstrual cycles

A

hormones are unsteady
can take 3 years to steady out (some women never do)

274
Q

role of FSH in female

A

stimulates follicle cells
causes growth and maturation of follicle
-stimulates primordial follicle to ripen

275
Q

role of LH early in the cycle

A

LH causes thecal cells of the secondary follicle to produce androgens
- androgens are converted to estrogen by gransulosa cells (they release the estrogen and it circulates in the body)

276
Q

role of estrogen

A

the initial rise in estrogen level inhibits the release of FSH and LH (it is still stored in the anterior pituitary, just not released)
-LH stimulates the continuation of follicle development (estrogen production increases)
-the increase in estrogen levels causes a flood of LH (what was previously stored)

277
Q

non-cyclic (not related to development of the follicle) role of estrogen

A

-anabolic effects (maturation of female sex organs and reproductive tract)
-supports short term growth spurt of girls at puberty (occurs before male)
-promotes female secondary sex characteristics (smooth skin, less oil, increase in fat composition around hips and breasts)

278
Q

role of LH during cycle

A

the surge in LH stimulates the completion of meiosis I by the dominant primary follicle
-one of these will go through ovulation which inhibits estrogen production (surge of LH stops)
-transforms the ruptured follicle into the corpus hemorrhagicum and then corpus luteum
- then progesterone and estrogen are produced from the corpus luteum

279
Q

role of progesterone in female

A

inhibits FSH and LH production

280
Q

role of inhibin in female

A

inhibits FSH and LH production
-stops things in the ovary
-suppresses FSH and LH when pregnant so we don’t develop any more follicles

281
Q

uterine cycle

A

the menstrual cycle (changes in the endometrium)
-highly coordinated with ovarian cycle

282
Q

menstrual phase of uterine cycle

A

begins with menses (blood)
- ovarian hormones are at their lowest level- lack of hormone causes the functional endometrium to be sloughed off
-menstruation occurs (bleeding)
-lasts 3-5 days
-experience increase in receptors for progesterone increase
-occurs at same time as ovarian follicular phase

283
Q

proliferative phase of uterine cycle

A

-FSH and LH levels increase which causes estrogen levels to increase and the endometrium rebuilds itself
-progesterone receptors develop in the endometrial cells

284
Q

secretory phase of uterine cycle

A

-progesterone receptors increase and the progesterone causes the endometrium to prepare for implantation and form the cervical plug
-decreasing progesterone and LH levels initiate breakdown of the endometrium and the cycle starts all over again

285
Q

why does the endometrium shed

A

it is sloughed off to rebuild and constantly create a healthy lining for possible implantation

286
Q

explain the female sexual response

A

mostly psychological arousal
- blood engorges in the clitoris upon parasympathetic nervous activity
-the vestibular gland is stimulated by friction to produce mucus and aid in insertion
-orgasm does not always happen and no refractory people
-climax does not have to occur for the female to be impregnated

287
Q

human sexual development

A

the gender is determined by male -> X or Y sperm
-embryo is sexually indifferent until 2 months post-conception
-development of gonads begin 5-6 weeks post conception but do not differentiate until 2 months

288
Q

sexual differentiation

A

gonadal ridges begin to form 5 weeks post conception
mullerian and wolffian ducts develop
primordial germ cells are depostited
genital tubercle develops and contains the urethral groove, urethral fold, and labioscrotal swellings

289
Q

mullerian ducts

A

female

290
Q

wolffian ducts

A

male
-men are dogs and wolfs are close to dogs

291
Q

urethral groove is

A

the external opening of the urogenital sinus that forms the urethral oepnings

292
Q

urethral folds are

A

on the sides of the grooves

293
Q

labioscrotal swellings are

A

on the sides of the folds
will develop into either a labia or scrotum

294
Q

steps of male sexual differentiation (all directed by SRY gene)

A
  1. seminiferous tubules form in gonadal ridges and link with wollfian ducts
  2. the developing testes secrete anti-mullerian hormone (AMH) which causes the mullerian duct to degenerate
  3. genital tubercle enlarges to form the penis
  4. labioscrotal folds fuse to form the scrotum
  5. urethral folds fuse to form the urethra
  6. testosterone production guides secondary sexual developlemt (continues development of sex organs)
  7. testes descend into scrotum approximately 2 months before birth
295
Q

female sexual differentiation

A
  1. gonadal ridges form the ovaries
  2. follicles form in the cortex of ovaries (they start to deposit and get surrounded by germinal cells
  3. mullerian ducts differentiate and nothing stops their generation while wollfian ducts degenerate because there is nothing promoting their generation
  4. genital tubercle gives rise to the clitoris
  5. urethral groove becomes vestibule
  6. urethral fold stays unfused and becomes the labia minora
  7. labioscrotal folds stay unfused and become the labia majora
  8. ovaries descend, but only to the pelvic brim (stay inside the body)
296
Q

what is the female counterpart to the penis

A

the clitoris

297
Q

what does the urethral groove give rise to in women

A

the vestibule

298
Q

what does the urethral fold turn into in female

A

the labia minora

299
Q

what does the labioscrotal fold turn into in female

A

the labia majora

300
Q

process of fertilization

A

sperm fuses with a secondary oocyte and finishes meiosis II to form a zygote
-sperm is viable for 72 hours
-oocyte is viable for 24 hours
(4 day window to get pregnant)

301
Q

4 barriers to prevent fertilization

A
  1. loss of sperm from the vagina
    - men release millions of sperm, not all of them stay
  2. vaginas acidic environemnt
  3. consistency of cervical mucus
    - contractions during ovulation work against sperm
  4. phagocytic cells in the uterus
    - sperm try to fertilize ANY cell, they can choose the wrong one
302
Q

capacitation

A

sperm are incapable of fertilization immediately after ejaculation so they go through this process for 6-8 hours
- the membrane gets thinned out by the swimming action of sperm and this allows acrosomal enzymes to be released
-change in tail activity

303
Q

acrosomal reaction

A

the sperm will bind with the zona pellucida and the acrosomal enzymes are released to digest the zona pellucida
-hundreds of sperm do this but only one will end up penetrating the oocyte

304
Q

fast block to polyspermy

A

membrane dpolarization
the union of sperm to the oocyte causes sodium channels to open
- the membrane depolarizes and nothing gets in

305
Q

slow block to polyspermy

A

cortical reaction
-once sperm penetrates the oocyte, the endoplasmic reticulum releases calcium and water comes in, pushing the sperm away
-this causes the membrane to spill enzymes and kill receptors

306
Q

what happens if two sperm penetrate one egg

A

miscarriage

307
Q

process of implantation

A

occurs 6-7 days after ovulation
the egg embeds itself into the stratum functionalis
human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) secreted by the zygote, maintains the corpus luteum
- this causes progesterone production and maintains the lining -> eventually the placenta takes over

308
Q

chroion

A

external embryonic membrane
chorionic villi are the baby’s capillary beds

309
Q

amnion

A

deep embryonic membrane
contains amniotic fluid which provides cushion, float, and protects the baby
-it breaks after thinning and this is your water breaking

BIOL 2230 (3 decks)

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