Exam 1 Flashcards
Definition of health
“A positive state of physical, mental, and social well-being – not just the
absence of injury or disease – that varies over time along a continuum.”
Health psychologists focus on…
Understanding psychological and behavioural factors involved in health, finding effective theory/methods to change behaviours, maintenance of health and management of disease.
Chronic disease
Now main cause of death in Canada
Mind-body question
What role does a person’s mind play in becoming ill and getting well?
Biomedical model
The mind and body are entirely separate. All diseases and physical disorders can be explained by disturbances in physiological processes. These disturbances result from injury, infection, and biochemical imbalances. In essence: disease is physical and entirely separate from the processes of the mind. This remains the dominant view in medicine today.
Psychosomatic medicine
Field of medicine formed in the 1930s, linking patterns of personality to specific illnesses. Key premise that anxiety takes a physical toll on the nervous system through the autonomic nervous stem, eventually causing an actual physical problem.
Behavioural medicine
Amid the growing popularity of behaviour modification/cognitive-behavioural approaches of the 60s/70s, observable, testable interventions for health and illness were in demand. Physiological psychologists demonstrated that emotions influenced body systems, such as blood pressure. This revealed that the mind-body link is direct and pervasive, giving rise to biofeedback and integarating knowledge from social sciences.
Current view of the mind-body relationship
All conditions of health and illness are influenced by psychological and social factors. Physical health, therefore, is inextricably intertwined with one’s psychological and social environment. Staying well is determined by good health habits, which are for the most part under one’s control as well as by SDHs.
Smith, Gallo et al. (2012) on personality traits and health
- Low conscientiousness correlated to higher rates of heart diseases
- High happiness and enthusiasm correlated to longer lifespan
- High levels of anxiety, depression, hostility and pessimism at risk for dying early, developing heart conditions
Operant conditioning
In which behaviour is changed because of its consequences: reinforcement (reward) strengthens the behaviour; punishment suppresses it.
Mortality
Occurrence of death, typically on a large scale
Morbidity
Refers to illness, injury, or disability.
Prevalence
Number of cases of illness, disease or disability. It includes both continuing (previously reported) and new cases at a given moment in time.
Incidence
Number of new cases of illness, disease or disability reported during a specific time.
Epidemic
Usually refers to a situation in which the incidence, generally of an infectious disease, has increased rapidly.
Pandemic
Refers to an epidemic that has increased to international or worldwide proportions.
Sympathetic nervous systems
Readies body to deal with stress (catabolic system): the mobilization and exertion of energy
Parasympathetic nervous system
Acts in the opposite direction to SNS: restores body to steady state after threat passes. An anabolic system (concerned with conserving bodily energy)
Neurotransmitters: catecholamines
Neurotransmitters are chemicals that regulate nervous system functioning. When the SNS is triggered due to a perceived threat; it prompts the release of neurotransmitters termed catecholamines (norepinephrine and epinephrine). They enter the bloodstream and are carried throughout the body, ramping up sympathetic stimulation.
Limbic system
Collection of structures that border the midline of the brain. This includes the amygdala (detection of threats), hippocampus (emotional memories), cingulate gyrus, septum, and areas of the hypothalamus (emotional functioning). Plays an important role in stress and emotional responses.
The heart
Organ which functions as a pump, circulating blood throughout the body. The cardiac cycle consists of two phases: systole and diastole. During systole, blood is pumped out of the heart and BP increases. During diastole, blood is taken into the heart and BP drops; the heart rests.
Blood pressure (BP)
The pressure of circulating blood against the walls of the blood vessels. Most of this pressure is from the heart pumping blood through the circulatory system. Normal BP is usually at 120/80mmHg. Systolic BP is pressure when the heart contracts, and diastolic BP is pressure when the heart rests.
Atherosclerosis
Cholesterol deposits plaque buildup on artery walls.
Arteriosclerosis
Hardening of the arteries; arteries thicken and lose flexibility.
Hypertension
High blood pressure
Myocardial infarction
Heart attack
Congestive heart failure
An underlying problem has reduce cardiac capacity to pump
Stroke
Blockage in brain vessel
Function of the immune system
The surveillance system of the body; identifying foreign bodies (bacteria and viruses), attacking and removing them. Impacts infection, allergies, cancer, and autoimmune disease.
Psycho-neuro-immunology
Study of interactions between psychological and neuroendocrine processes that affect
Direct transmission of microbes
Transmission through bodily contact: shaking hands, kissing, sex (HPV, genital herpes).
Indirect (or environmental) transmission of microbes
Passed through airborne particles, soil, dust, water, food (COVID-19, influenza).
Biological transmission of microbes
A transmitting agent picks up microbes, changes them, and passes on the disease to a human (yellow fever).
Mechanical transmission of microbes
Microbes are transmitted by a carrier not involved in disease process (hepatitis).
Incubation period
Time from contraction of infection to appearance of symptoms.
Period of nonspecific symptoms
General discomfort, fatigue, headaches, low mood. This is referred to as Sickness Behaviour, which is associated with the immune system doing its job (releasing cytokines to coordinate the immune response).
Acute phase
Disease and symptoms are at their height. Followed by death or a decline in symptoms while microbes are being expelled from body.
Localized infection
Infection stuck in a particular infection (ear infection).
Focal infection
Toxins disseminate from infection
Systemic infection
Full-body infection
Immunity
Body’s resistance to injury or illness from invading organisms
Natural immunity
Gained from exposure to disease, through process of acquired immunity
Artificial immunity
Gained through vaccinations and inoculations
How is the immune system activated?
The system identifies antigens (ex: proteins on the surface of viruses, fungi, and bacteria). When these antigens attach to receptors on immune cells, a series of processes are triggered and antibodies are produced. When these antibodies attach to an antigen, it signals to other parts of the body to attack and destroy invaders. Sometimes, the body’s own cells have proteins on their surface and the immune system mistakes these for antigens, leading it to attack perfectly healthy cell; an autoimmune response.
Non-specific immune responses
Immune mechanisms that are general responses to any infections.
Specific mechanisms
Fight particular microorganisms
Phagocytosis
Certain white blood cells (called phagocytes) eat microbes
Antimicrobial substances
Chemicals that kill invading microbes
Inflammatory response
Capillaries enlarge and histamines are released, allowing white blood cells to enter the tissue. The area becomes red and fluid accumulates. White blood cells attack microbes, resulting in pus.
AIDS
Disorder of immune system caused by HIV
Cancer
Disorder of immune system now believed to depend heavily on immunocompromise
Autoimmune disease
Characterized by a specific immune response that attacks the body’s tissues. Stress appears to aggravate it.
Infectious disorders
Tonsilitis, mononucleosis, lymphoma
Systems involved in stress response
Sympathetic-adrenomedullary (SAM) system, and the Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical (HPA) axis
Neurons
Specialized nerve cells
Dendrites
Branches on neurons functioning as receivers for adjacent neurons
Axon
Conduit for messages to and from dendrites
Synaptic knobs
Small swellings which connect the dendrites of other neurons, usually through a fluid filled gap
Epilepsy
Causes neurons to fire at abnormally fast rates
Myelin
Fatty white substance which protects axons. Responsible for increasing the speed of nerve impulsesDegrades during multiple sclerosis, resulting in nerve severance and causing patients to experience muscle weakness and lack coordination.
Glial cells
Support cells, thought to support and maintain the neurons.
Central nervous system
Consists of brain and spinal cord. Races toward maturity in the early stages of life.
Peripheral nervous system
Composed of remaining network of neurons
Brain
Divided into forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain
Forebrain
Uppermost part of brain, consisting of telencephalon (cerebrum and limbic system), and diencephalon (hypothalamus and thalamus). Involved in perceptual, motor, learning and conceptual activities.
Cerebrum
Largest portion of the human brain. Two halves (left/right hemisphere). Motor movements, controlling cognitive/language processes. Left: spoken/written language/numerical skills. Right: visual imagery, emotions, perceptions of patterns.
Frontal lobe
Contains motor cortex. Emotional control and skills management center. Injury results in disinhibition, irritability, decreased self-awareness and disruption in planning/goals.
Temporal lobe
Hearing, vision and memory. Injury results in change in sex behaviours, and increased aggression.
Parietal lobe
Sense of touch and bodily sensation.
Occipital lobe
Visual perception
Neurotransmitters
Chemicals which travel to the dendrites of an adjacent neutron: either exciting or inhibiting said neuron.
Thalamus
Chief relay station for directing sensory messages
Hypothalamus
Emotions and motivation
Cerebellum
Coordinates movement and maintains body balance
Brainstem
Pons, medulla, reticular system, and midbrain.
Midbrain
Receives information from thalamus, relays to forebrain. Receives information from visual/auditory systems and is very important in muscle movement.
Reticular system
Network of neurons which extends from top of brainstem and into thalamus. Plays an important role in controlling sleep, attention, and arousal.
Pons
Forms a large bulge at the top of the brainstem. Involved in eye movement, facial expression, and chewing.
Endocrine system
Glands working in close connection with ANS, communicating with hormones
Primary appraisal
Assessing what the event means to the person experiencing it. Stressful appraisals result in three further appraisals: harm-loss, threat, and challenge.
Secondary appraisal
Assessment of whether or not person has resources available to deal with a stressor.
General adaptation syndrome
Series of physiological responses in response to emergencies; consisting of three stages: alarm, resistance, and exhaustion.
GAS: Alarm
Body is mobilized to defend against stressor.
GAS: Resistance
Arousal remains high, as body tries to defend itself and mobilize against/adapt to stressor.
GAS: Exhaustion
Resources are very limited, and ability to resist may collapse.
Allostatic load
Cumulative physical effect of repeated stress.
Gender/socio-cultural differences in stress
Women report experiencing more major and minor stressors, FNMI more likely to experience stressors/trauma, low income/education associated with higher stress, racial minorities have higher stress levels.
Social support and stress
Protective factor in illness resulting from stress.
Buffering hypothesis
Social support protects an individual from stress-related illness by protecting a person against the negative effects of high stress. Under low stress conditions, little or no buffering occurs. High social support individuals may expect that someone will help them, by lending support or money. Social support may also modify an individual’s initial or secondary appraisals.
Direct effect hypothesis
Maintains that social support benefits health and wellbeing regardless of the amount of stress people experience, due to strong feelings of belongingness and self-esteem.
Stress prevention model
Posits that social support is beneficial given that it helps us not make decisions leading to stressful events in the first place.
Behavioural control
Ability to take concrete action to reduce stressor’s impact; which may reduce intensity or shorten duration.
Cognitive control
Ability to use thought processes or strategies to modify the impact of a stressor, such as focusing on a pleasant or neutral thought.
Type A behaviour pattern
Consists of time urgency, competitive nature, anger/hostility, and vigorous vocal style. Linked to CHD (anger/hostility specifically)
Emotion-focused coping
Aimed at controlling emotional response to the stressful situation. Achieved through behavioural EFC (watching TV, drinking alcohol), or cognitive EFC (how people think about a stressful situation.
Problem-focused coping
Aimed at reducing stress associated with a stressful situation by mitigating the situation.
Cognitive restructuring
Process by which stress-provoking/thoughts and beliefs are replaced with ones less likely to cause fear and harm.
