Exam 1 Flashcards
3 important ramifications when defining a disorder: this colors the way we may interpret behavior
- insurance (reimbursement for treatment)
- legal responsibility for treatment
- disability
3 examples of past and present diagnoses that have been controversial:
- drapetomania (propensity of slaves to run away)
- childhood masturbation disorder
- homosexuality
why is there no single definition of psychological abnormality or normality?
most behaviors exist on a continuum (substance use, sleep, eating, etc.)
wakefield argues disorder as ____
“harmful dysfunction”
hybrid of “value judgment” (ex. harmful) and “biological disadvantage” (a failure of a mechanism to perform naturally)
harmful dysfunction
wakefield’s 5 approaches to defining abnormal behavior: “disorder as ____”
- pure value concept
- whatever professionals treat
- statistical deviance (intellectual disability)
- biological disadvantage (evolution)
- distress or suffering
judgment of desirability according to social norms and ideals
disorder defined as a pure value concept
problem with defining disorder as a pure value concept:
very subjective
2 problems with defining disorder as whatever professionals treat:
- clients come in for treatment for behaviors that are normal
- individuals do NOT come in when they are disordered
-can be statistically deviant on many traits and it is a positive attribute (ex. IQ, strength)
-even undesirable behaviors that are statistically deviant may not be a disorder (ex. being rude)
problem with defining disorder as a statistical deviance (intellectual disability)
- if behavior results in lower reproductive fitness
- if some mental mechanism is not performing the specific function it was designed to perform (ex. normal anxiety vs. pathological anxiety)
- when a mechanism fails to perform as it was designed AND it causes impairment
3 criteria for a disorder to be classified as a biological disadvantage
toward a definition of abnormal behavior:
breakdown in cognitive, emotional, or behavioral function within the individual (it comes from the inside, aka within)
psychological dysfunction
toward a definition of abnormal behavior:
difficulty performing appropriate and expected roles
-some disorders may emphasize one over the other (ex. antisocial personality disorder)
personal distress or disability (functional impairment)
toward a definition of abnormal behavior:
reaction to abnormal behavior is outside cultural norms
atypical or unexpected cultural response
widiger argues that two constructs are fundamental to the definition of mental disorder:
dyscontrol and maladaptively
“an impaired ability to direct or regulate ovolition, emotion, behavior, or cognition, or some other area, which often entails inability to resist impulses and leads to abnormal behaviors without significant provocation” (APA)
dyscontrol
“a condition in which biological traits or behavior patterns are detrimental, counterproductive, or otherwise interfere with optimal functioning in various domains, such as successful interaction with the environment and effectual coping with the challenges and stresses of daily life” (APA)
maladaptively
true or false: some argue that we will never have a perfect definition of a mental disorder
true
a widely accepted system that is used to classify psychological disorders and problems
DSM-5
DSM stands for:
diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders
the DSM-5 contains diagnostic criteria for behaviors that: (4)
- fit a pattern
- cause dysfunction or stress
- are present for a specified duration
- are based on protoypes
a typical or standard example of a disorder
prototype
a clinical description of abnormality begins with the ____
presenting problem (what is bringing the client/patient into treatment)
this description aims to distinguish clinically significant dysfunction from common human experience and to describe demographics, relevant symptoms, age of onset, and precipitating factors
clinical description
keep in mind three factors while using the clinical description of abnormality:
- prevalence and incidence
- course of disorders
- onset of disorders
number of people in the population with a disorder
prevalence
number of new cases during a given time
incidence
course of disorders can be ___, ___, or ___
episodic, time-limited, or chronic
onset of disorders can be ___ or ___
acute (comes on quickly)
or insidious (comes on slowly)
factors that contribute to the development of psychopathology
etiology (diathesis-stress model)
combination of risk and a stressor - psychological disorders result from an interaction between inherent vulnerability and environmental stressors
diathesis-stress model
treatment development - how can we help to alleviate psychological suffering?
pharmacologic, psychosocial, and/or combined treatments
studies the effectiveness of clinical interventions, including the comparison of competing treatments
treatment outcome research
treatment outcome research - how do we know that we have helped?
we are limited in specifying actual causes of disorders
major psychological disorders have existed in all ____ and across all ____
cultures ; time periods
two types of antipsychotics came out in the ____ and revolutionized medicine in psychology
1950s
three dominant traditions regarding abnormal behavior include:
- supernatural
- biological
- psychological
in the past, with respect to the supernatural tradition, deviant behavior was viewed as ____ vs. ____
good vs. evil
in the past, with respect to the supernatural tradition, deviant behavior was thought to be caused by:
demonic possession, witchcraft, and sorcery
in the past, with respect to the supernatural tradition, deviant behavior was treated by means of:
exorcism, torture, beatings, and crude surgeries
some treatments that worked in the past during the supernatural tradition:
placebo, classical conditioning, and fear
other worldly causes of deviant behavior:
movement of the moon and stars (astrology)
-“lunacy” is derivative of “luna,” or “moon”
people have long looked for physical causes of psychological disorders
the past: the biological tradition
who is the father of modern medicine?
hippocrates
____ believed that psychological disorders could be treated like any other disease. he believed “disease” was not the only potential cause, but that head trauma, brain pathology, and hereditary could impact disorders
hippocrates
____ extended hippocrates’ work, creating the ____ theory of mental illness
galen ; humoral theory of mental illness
the idea that disease resulted from having too much or too little of a certain humor
humoral theory of mental illness
the humoral theory of mental illness is comprised of 4 major bodily fluids, or “humors” :
- blood (heart)
- black bile (spine)
- yellow bile (liver)
- phlegm (brain)
this tradition linked abnormality with brain chemical imbalances and foreshadowed modern views
galenic-hippocratic tradition
the biological condition comes of age:
interest in biological factors of mental illness fluctuated over the centuries until the 19th century. what happened to bolster the view that mental illness = physical illness, providing a biological basis for madness?
syphilis
a sexually transmitted disease caused by a bacterial infection
syphilis
advanced stage syphilis can result in ___ and ___
delusions and other psychotic behaviors (hallucinations)
who discovered the cause of syphilis, and what was the cause he discovered?
pasteur ; a bacterial microorganism
pasteur’s discovery that syphilis was caused by a bacterial microorganism led to ____ as a successful treatment
penicillin
the biological tradition led to ___ treatments
biological
during this time, biological treatments were standard practice (insulin shock therapy, ECT, and brain surgery)
the 1930s
during this time, medications (such as neuroleptics aka antipsychotics) were becoming increasingly available
the 1950s
this medication reduces hallucinations, delusions, agitation, and aggressiveness
neuroleptics (antipsychotics)
during this time, benzodizepines (ex. valium) were introduced, and antidepressants began being developed
1970s
the past: the psychological tradition
plato and aristotle both thought that the ____ and ____ environment and ____ experiences impacted psychopathology
social and cultural environment ; early learning experiences
normalizing treatment of the mentally ill
-reinforce and model appropriate behaviors
-emphasize importance of a nurturing environment
the rise of moral therapy
- worked best with smaller patient populations
- dorothea dix led the mental hygiene movement
- rise of mental hygiene movement - move from moral therapy to “custodial care”
- rise of biological tradition and notion that mental illness was due to brain pathology and was incurable
4 reasons for the falling out of moral therapy:
the psychological tradition reemerges in the 1900s in three different forms:
- psychoanalysis
- humanism
- behaviorism (and cognitive-behaviorism eventually)
the past: the psychoanalytic tradition was led by ___ and ___
freud and breuer
the past: the psychoanalytic tradition
breuer had patients describe psychological problems and conflicts under hypnosis, leading to two important “discoveries” :
unconscious mind and catharsis
under hypnosis, individuals revealed material that appeared to be outside of their explicit awareness
unconscious mind
individuals felt better after discussing and reliving emotionally painful events and feelings (release of emotional tension)
catharsis
unconscious needs or drives are at the heart of human motivation
-human behavior is influenced by unconscious memories, thoughts, and urges
freudian theory
structure and function of the mind (3 components)
- id
- ego
- superego
think of the ___ as the brain, the ___ as the devil on your shoulder, and the ___ as the angel
-ego as the brain
-id as the devil on your shoulder
-superego as the angel
the pleasure principle (demands immediate gratification)
id
the most primitive part of the mind (part of the mind that is “like a four year old”)
id
unique processing of information within the id
primary process
thinking that is emotional, irrational, fantastical, and primal (sex, aggression, and envy)
primary process
the id is the source of sexual and aggressive motives and “energy,” which freud called ____
libido
instinctual drive for sex, pleasure, and fulfillment
eros
the “death instinct” - drive toward aggression and death
thanatos
the reality principle; must balance the needs of the id with rules of society
ego
the thinking style associated with the ego is called
secondary process
secondary process within the ego is characterized by ___ and ___
logic and reason
ego referred to as a rider on a horse (the horse being id)
the horse is stronger, but the man can usually control it
conscience - represents the moral ideas we learn from family, friends, and society
superego
how does our superego develop?
as a result of being rewarded and punished for various behaviors (or seeing others experience this via vicarious learning)
the purpose of the superego is to:
counteract the drive toward sex and aggression offered by the id
____ must mediate between the id and superego
ego
if mediation between the id and the superego is successful…
individuals can pursue higher goals
if mediation between the id and the superego is not successful… (if either the id or superego is overpowering)
we will experience intrapsychic conflict (an over-controlling superego can cause just as many problems as an over-controlling id)
freud felt that ___ and ___ were almost entirely unconscious
id and superego
when ego cannot maintain balance between the needs of id and superego, it results in ___
anxiety
anxiety serves as a warning that ego might be overwhelmed - results in use of ____
defense mechanisms
unconscious protective processes that keep primitive emotions associated with conflict in check so that the ego can continue with its coordinating function
defense mechanisms
defense mechanisms can be ____ or ____ (some call them “coping styles”)
adaptive or maladaptive
8 defense mechanisms:
- affiliation
- humor
- sublimation
- displacement
- intellectualization
- reaction formation
- repression
- projection
deal with conflict by turning to others for help and support
affiliation
emphasize the amusing or ironic aspects of conflict or stressor
humor
deal with conflict or stressors by channeling potentially maladaptive feelings or impulses into socially acceptable behavior
sublimation
ex. of sublimation as a defense mechanism:
someone with anger issues may channel their aggressive urges into sports instead of lashing out at others physically or verbally
transfer feelings about, or response to, one object onto another (usually less threatening) substitute object
displacement
ex. of displacement as a defense mechanism
a person who is angry at their boss may “take out” their anger on a family member by shouting at them
excessive use of abstract thinking or the making of generalizations to control or minimize disturbing feelings
intellectualization
ex. of intellectualization as a defense mechanism
a person might focus on funeral arrangements rather than dealing with their own grief, or spending all of their time researching an illness they have been diagnosed with, rather than talking about how they feel about the diagnosis
substitutes behavior, thoughts, or feelings that are the direct opposite of unacceptable ones
reaction formation
ex. of reaction formation as a defense mechanism
a young boy who bullies a young girl because, on a subconscious level, he is attracted to her
blocks disturbing wishes, thoughts, or experiences from conscious awareness
repression
falsely attributing own unacceptable feelings, impulses, or thoughts to another individual
projection
ex. of projection as a defense mechanism
the classroom bully who teases other children for crying but is quick to cry
stages of child development in which a child’s pleasure-seeking urges are focused on specific areas of the body called erogenous zones
psychosexual stages of development
freud posited 5 basic stages of psychosexual stages of development
- oral stage
- anal stage
- phallic stage
- latency stage
- genital stage
inadequate or inappropriate gratification in any stage would lead to a “____,” which would be reflected in the individual’s adult behavior
“fixation”
the oral stage occurs from ___ to age ___ to ___
birth to age 1.5 to 2
the oral stage is characterized by a central focus on ____ (sucking; lips, tongue, and mouth become focus of pleasure)
food
ex. of an oral fixation
smoking or chewing on something
the anal stage occurs from age ___ to ___
2 to 3
the anal stage is characterized by a central focus on the ____ and the ____ vs. ____ of feces
anus ; expulsion vs. retention
the anal stage is resolved when:
toilet training is completed
ex. of anal fixation
anal retentive (OCD, “you’re so anal”)
anal explosive (sloppy, disorganized, “out-there”)
the phallic stage occurs from age ___ to ___ or ___
3 to 5 or 6
the phallic stage is characterized by a focus on the ___ region
genital region ; as the child becomes more interested in his genitals, and in the genitals of others
2 major conflicts during the phallic stage:
oedipus complex and electra complex
young boys have sexual fantasies tied to interactions with mother
oedipus complex
the oedipus complex leads to anger toward the father because they see father as an obstacle, but fears father - results in identification with father
castration anxiety
young girls want to replace mother and possess father
electra complex
girls desire a penis, so as to be more like father (resolved when girls develop a healthy heterosexual relationship)
penis envy
the latency stage occurs from age ___ or ___ until ___
5 or 6 until puberty
sexual interest lies ___ during the latency stage, and energy (___) is put into nonsexual interests, such as friendships, school, sports, and play
dormant ; libido
the genital stage occurs during ____
puberty
during the genital stage, the central focus returns to the ____ and interest in sexual relationships ____
genitals ; increases
freud believed that progress during the genital stage was ____ if the child remained fixated at earlier stages
impeded
the purpose of this therapy is to unearth the hidden intrapsychic conflicts through catharsis and insight (focus on childhood)
psychoanalysis
psychoanalysis is ____ (2-5 years) and high ____ (3-5 times per week)
long-term ; high frequency
-to analyze and resolve conflicts
-to restructure personality
-focus is NOT on symptom reductive
-ambitious goals - are issue focused
goals of psychotherapy
-patient lies on couch, analyst sits behind couch
-free association - no censoring!
-dream analysis - content reflects primary process (id)
examine transference and counter-transference issues
psychoanalysis techniques
the key to psychoanalysis - ____ is good
transference
projecting onto the therapist the conflicts/issues one has in a stable way
transference
this occurs when the therapist projects their own unresolved conflicts onto the client
counter-transference
issue with psychoanalysis
efficacy data are limited
this theory focuses on affect and patient’s expression of emotions (may comment on; more reflection back)
psychodynamic theory
nonverbal expressions of emotion
affect
-explore patients’ avoidance of topics or decisions to engage in behaviors that hinder therapy
-identify patterns in patients’ behaviors, thoughts, and feelings (personality)
-emphasis on role of past experiences
-focus on interpersonal experiences
-emphasis on therapeutic relationship
-exploration of patients’ fantasies, dreams, and wishes
characteristics of psychodynamic theory
common factor in therapy: whether you like your therapist, can trust your therapist, etc. determines outcome of therapy (whether or not one will get better)
therapeutic alliance
notion that there was a positive, uplifting quality of humanity (humans as beings that strive for improvement and excellence)
- much more optimistic notion (gives humans the benefit of the doubt)
humanistic theory
to attain one’s highest potential is to reach ____
-only possible if overcome obstacles (ex. more basic needs, psychological problems, interpersonal problems)
self-actualization
3 major players in humanistic theory:
carl rogers, abraham maslow, and fritz perls
this person practiced client (or person)-centered therapy
carl rogers
-therapist conveys empathy, unconditional positive regard
-minimal therapist interpretation
-convey genuineness
-belief that client has the resources to solve his/her own problems if given adequate support
-belief that the client-therapist relationship was the most important aspect of the treatment
carl rogers treatment characteristics
carl rogers uses ____ the most, bouncing back what the patient says
reflection
maslow’s hierarchy of needs
abraham maslow
maslow’s hierarchy of needs begins at the base with ____ needs that must first be satisfied before higher-level safety needs and then psychological needs become active
physiological needs
5 components of maslow’s hierarchy of needs:
- physical
- security
- social
- ego
- self-actualization
this model emphasizes behavior and the ways in which it is learned
behavioral model
two components of the behavioral model:
classical conditioning and operant conditioning
a common form of learning, this type of conditioning is characterized by the pairing of neutral stimuli and unconditioned stimuli
classical conditioning
an automatic response to a stimulus
unconditioned response
something that reflects a natural automatic response
unconditioned stimulus
a stimulus that leads to an automatic response
conditioned stimuli
an automatic response from training or experience
conditioned response
if the conditioned stimulus is presented without the unconditioned stimulus for too long, ____ occurs
extinction
who is known as the father of behaviorism?
watson
another common form of learning, this type of conditioning posits that voluntary behavior is controlled by consequences (positive or negative)
operant conditioning
increases the likelihood of behavior
reinforcement
decreases the likelihood of behavior
punishment
skinner noted that many behaviors are ____ elicited by unconditioned stimuli
not
behavior is either strengthened (more likely to occur) or weakened (less likely to occur) depending on the consequences of that behavior
thorndike’s law of effect
3 ideas posited by skinner:
reinforcement, punishment, and shaping
positive and negative ; increases behavior
reinforcement
ex. of positive reinforcement
professor gives extra credit to students who come to class
ex. of negative reinforcement
professor allows students who come to class to leave 10 minutes early (ELIMINATES AN AVERSIVE STIMULUS)
positive and negative ; decreases behavior
punishment
ex. of positive punishment
child brings home a bad report card, gets spanked
ex. of negative punishment
child brings home a bad report card, phone gets taken away (REMOVAL OF STIMULUS)
reinforce successive approximations of desired behavior
shaping
from behaviorism to behavior therapy:
this movement was against psychoanalysis and non-scientific approaches
reactionary movement
3 early pioneers of the reactionary movement
- wolpe
- beck
- bandura
systematic desensitization was practiced by:
wolpe
cognitive therapy was practiced by:
beck
social learning/cognitive-behavior therapy was practiced by:
bandura
this type of therapy tends to be time-limited, direct, here-and-now focused (have widespread empirical support)
behavior therapy
this model explains behavior in terms of a single cause (could mean a paradigm, school, or conceptual approach)
one-dimensional models
problem with one-dimensional models:
other information is often ignored
interdisciplinary, eclectic, and integrative model (“system” of influences that cause and maintain suffering)
-uses information from several sources
-abnormal behavior as multiply determined
multidimensional models
multidimensional models of abnormal behavior include 5 factors:
- biological factors (genetics, physiology, neurobiology)
- behavioral factors
- emotional factors
- social factors
- developmental factors
according to social factors, ____ stressors are most potent
interpersonal
ex. of a social factor or interpersonal stressor
a romantic relationship ending, feeling ostracized from a social group, feeling dissociated, etc.
ex. of a developmental factor
most people with schizophrenia were behind their siblings in fundamental developmental areas at a young age
genetic contributions to psychopathology: ___ vs. ___
phenotype vs. genotype
observable characteristics
phenotype
do we know much more about phenotype than we do about genotype? or vice versa?
more about phenotype
genetic makeup
genotype
does an identical twin or a fraternal twin have a higher chance of having schizophrenia if their twin does?
identical 50% chance (both children are equally at risk of schizophrenia because it is in their genotype) ; fraternal 19% chance
development and behavior is often ____ (contribution to many genes)
polygenetic
overall genetic contribution to psychopathology is less than ___%, but schizophrenia is around ___%
50% ; 80%
in some studies, depression is ___% to ___% heritable
20% to 40%
eating disorders are ___% to ___% heritable
40% to 50%
who proposed that learning could affect genes by turning them on or activating them?
genetic structure is malleable and receptive to the environment - what is this interaction referred to as?
eric kandel ; gene-environment interactions
a genetic vulnerability or predisposition (diathesis) interacts with the environment and life events (stressors) to trigger behaviors or psychological disorders
diathesis-stress model
when a third variable affects the strength or direction of the relationship between two variables
interaction
true or false: gene-environment correlations are kind of a falsehood
true
in many cases, ____ and ___ are correlated
(robustness to psychopathology (resilience) is correlated to both
genes and environment
genes can ____ the probability that an individual will experience environmental events (which might increase the likelihood of experiencing psychological problems)
-adoption studies are interesting because genes and environment can be parsed
increase
nothing about your behavior played a role in this stressor
independent stressor
ex. of an independent stressor
getting hit by a drunk driver on the way home from class
stressors that our own characteristics contribute to
dependent stressors
ex. of dependent stressor
getting into frequent fights with your partner because of the type of partner you tend to choose
three types of gene-environment correlations
- passive
- evocative
- provocative
types of genes a child inherits may be correlated with the environment one is raised in
passive
you play no role (no bearing on what you did right or wrong, but rather the role that both genetics and environment play)
passive
ex. of passive gene-environment correlation
individuals could inherit genes for lower IQ and be raised in a non-intellectually rich environment
individual’s genes may lead to behavior that evokes a response from the environment
evocative
evocative gene-environment correlation is ____ produced only due to negative influences
NOT
ex. of evocative gene-environment correlation
antisocial child (noncompliant, aggressive) may evoke certain responses from the environment (harsh, punitive parenting)
individual’s genes make the selection of certain environments more likely
-personality tends to stabilize (become fixed) as we age because we have created niches for ourselves (ex. introversion vs. extraversion)
provocative
environment (diet, stressors, behaviors, experiences) can affect how genes are expressed (ex. turning them on or off)
epigenetics
some genes will ___ express themselves unless in a certain environment
-and, some environments may have ___ effect unless the genetic predisposition is there
never ; little
if someone has a predisposition to alcohol abuse, but lives in an environment in which alcohol is prohibited, they will likely not develop alcoholism
ex. of epigenetics
how are neurotransmitters related to psychopathology?
almost all current psychiatric drugs impact one or more neurotransmitters
functions of neurotransmitters (study by introducing three classifications):
- agonist
- antagonist
- inverse agonist
increase activity by mimicking its effects
agonist
decrease or block a neurotransmitter
antagonists
produce effects opposite to those produced by a neurotransmitter
inverse agonist
this neurotransmitter regulates behavior, mood, and cognition
serotonin
disinhibition, emotional reactivity, and impulsivity are linked to ___ levels of serotonin
low
serotonin is related to ___, ___, ___, and ___
aggression, suicide, depression, and over-eating
treated with ___
SSRIs (selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors)
ex. of SSRIs
prozac, celexa, paxil, zoloft
SSRI would be a serotonin ___
agonist
excitatory transmitter (causes action)
glutamate
this neurotransmitter reduces postsynaptic activity (inhibitory effect) and has a broad influence on mood and behavior
gamma aminobutyric acid (GABA)
this neurotransmitter affects anxiety and arousal in general (reducing anxiety, emotional reactivity, anger, aggression, and positive mood states, too)
gamma aminobutyric acid (GABA)
____ are drugs that are believed to increase GABA
benzodiazepines (ex. valium, xanax, klonopin)
this neurotransmitter increases heart rate and blood pressure (may be active in fight or flight situations)
norepinephrine (noradrenaline)
____ are used for hypertension and to reduce anxiety responses
beta-blockers
blocks beta receptors that are activated by norepinephrine
beta-blockers
this neurotransmitter works as the “switch” that impacts the effects of other neurotransmitters
dopamine
____ implicated in exploratory, reward-seeking behaviors
dopamine
high levels of dopamine are implicated in ____
schizophrenia
hallucinations and delusions will reduce if given a dopamine ___
inhibitor
learning from psychopharmacology and various scanning procedures (fMRI, PET) the function and structure of the brain and what roles they play in psychopathology
relations between the brain and abnormal behavior
____ influences can change brain function (particularly early experiences, with regard to feelings of control, safety, attachment)
psychosocial
therapy…
also changes brain function
psychosocial factors interact with brain ___ and ___
structures and function
ex. identical groups of monkeys
-group 1 has control (when to eat; what toys to play with)
-group 2 has no control (food and toys access determined by group 1)
when given a drug causing strong anxiety, “no control” group ____, and the “control” group became ____
cowered ; became aggressive
neurotransmitters interact with ____ factors to affect current behavior
psychosocial
____ conditioning found that it was not just the pairing of the uncontrolled stimulus and controlled stimulus, but that it had to be consistent
classical conditioning
seligman’s belief that one is helpless to impact life leads to depression
learned helplessness
the opposite of learned helplessness is true, and has huge effect on health:
learned optimism
bandura’s ____ is characterized by modeling and observational learning (vicarious learning)
-plays a role in substance abuse, aggression, interpersonal relationships
social learning
according to ____ learning, we are evolutionarily programmed to learn certain things better than others (ex. we fear snakes, heights not trees, rocks) food poisoning - rare case of one time learning
prepared learning
the nature of ___ is to elicit or evoke action (fight or flight; repair damaged relationships; promote the continuation of behavior)
the nature of emotion
short lived, temporary states
emotion
a more persistent, enduring state
mood
momentary emotional tone that accompanies behavior
affect
___/___ are to mood what weather is to climate
affect/emotion
strong link between ___ and ___ with heart disease due to a decreased pumping efficiency for the heart
anger and hostility
all of the basic emotions (fear, anger, sadness, excitement) can be linked to psychological disorders if they occur too ___, without “___,” too ___, or without ___ control
frequently ; “cause” ; strongly ; internal
chronically depressed mood
depression
overly positive, excited mood
mania
strong fear response despite a lack of threatening stimuli
panic
these factors of psychopathology contribute to the influence and expression of behavior
cultural factors
most people across different cultures experience ___ symptoms, but ___ are different
similar ; attributions
contrast european americans with schizophrenia to latinos with schizophrenia
european americans: describe life using terms related to mental illness
latinos: use “nerves” - seen as less pejorative and elicits more sympathy
___ has a strong effect on psychopathology
gender (ex. depression, eating disorders, phobias, antisocial personality disorder)
___ have higher rates of internalizing disorders across cultures (even in more matriarchal societies)
ex. anxiety, depression
women
___ have higher rates of externalizing disorders
ex. antisocial personality, substance abuse
men
social effects on health and behavior:
___ and ___ of social interaction are important
frequency and quality
relationships have a protective quality against both physical and psychological disorders for three reasons:
- give meaning to life
- help us cope with physical and psychological pain
- encourage health-promoting behaviors
____ of social support may be most vital
perceptions
this perspective addresses developmental changes
(different periods of life associated with different challenges that might influence psychological health)
life-span developmental perspective
developmental stage will also influence how disorders are manifested and treated (ex. antisocial men at 50 may look different than at 20)
heterotypic continuity
multiple paths to a given outcome (ex. psychosis)
equifinality
same events (ex. trauma, genes) can lead to different outcomes
multifinality
this field examines the role of the nervous system in disease and behavior
the field of neuroscience
branches of the human nervous system:
central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS)
two components of the central nervous system (CNS)
the brain and spinal cord
two branches of the peripheral nervous system (PNS)
somatic and autonomic branches
the autonomic nervous system (ANS) of the peripheral nervous system (PNS) is composed of two divisions:
sympathetic division and parasympathetic division
the neuron is composed of five components:
- soma
- dendrites
- axon
- axon terminals
- synapses
the soma is the ___
cell body
branches that receive messages from other neurons (chemical messages are converted into electrical impulses)
dendrites
trunk of the neuron that sends messages to other neurons
axon
buds at the end of the axon from which chemical messages are sent
axon terminals
small gaps that separate neurons
synapses
neurons are not connected - they are separated by the ___
synaptic cleft
___ are released into the cleft and communicate with the next neuron
neurotransmitters
two main parts of the brain:
brainstem and forebrain
the most ancient part of the brain that is found in most animals and controls basic processes (ex. breathing, sleeping, physical coordination)
brainstem
largest and most recently evolved part of the brain
forebrain
three main divisions of the brain:
- hindbrain
- midbrain
- forebrain
hindbrain consists of three parts:
- medulla
- pons
- cerebellum
this part of the hindbrain regulates heart rate, blood pressure, and respiration
medulla
this part of the hindbrain regulates sleep stages
pons
this part of the hindbrain is involved in physical coordination
cerebellum
this division of the brain coordinates movement with sensory input and contains parts of the reticular activating system (RAS)
midbrain
this part of the midbrain is related to arousal and consciousness; sleep cycles
reticular activating system (RAS)
the forebrain is also referred to as the ___
cerebral cortex
most sensory, emotional, and cognitive processing occurs within this division of the brain, within two specialized hemispheres
forebrain (cerebral cortex)
four lobes of the cerebral cortex:
- frontal
- parietal
- occipital
- temporal
thinking and reasoning abilities and memory are controlled by this lobe of the cerebral cortex
frontal
touch recognition is controlled by this lobe of the cerebral cortex
parietal
this lobe of the cerebral cortex integrates visual input
occipital
this lobe of the cerebral cortex controls recognition of sights, smells, sounds, and long-term memory storage; process complex stimuli
temporal
the hippocampus, amygdala, septum, and cingulated gyrus compose which system?
limbic system
this system is related to emotion, motivation, and memory
limbic system
this part of the brain receives and integrates sensory information
thalamus
eating, drinking, aggression, and sexual activity are controlled by this part of the brain
hypothalamus
the 2 hemispheres of the cerebral cortex are connected by the ___
corpus callosum
this hemisphere deals with visual-spatial processing, visual imagery, and creativity
right
this hemisphere deals with language and reasoning
left
which hemisphere is usually dominant?
left
what are the two branches of the peripheral nervous system (PNS)?
somatic branch and autonomic branch
this branch of the peripheral nervous system (PNS) controls voluntary muscles and movement
somatic branch
the autonomic branch of the peripheral nervous system (PNS) is composed of two branches:
sympathetic and parasympathetic branches of the ANS
these branches regulate the cardiovascular system and body temperature, and regulate the endocrine system and aid in digestion
sympathetic and parasympathetic branches of the ANS
this system of the ANS mobilizes the body during times of stress (fight or flight; heart races, increased respiration, decreased digestion)
sympathetic system
this system of the ANS takes over when not stressed - focuses on restoring energy and equilibrium (increased digestion; slowed breathing and heart rate)
REST AND DIGEST
parasympathetic system
hormones (chemicals) are released into the bloodstream (affect response to stress, growth, metabolism, sexual characteristics)
the endocrine system
systematic evaluation and measurement of psychological, biological, and social factors in a person presenting with a possible psychological disorder
clinical assessment
process of determining whether the particular problem afflicting the individual meets all criteria for psychological disorder set forth in the DSM-5
diagnosis
the purpose of clinical assessment (4 components)
- to understand the individual
- to predict behavior
- to plan treatment
- to evaluate treatment outcome
analogous to a funnel
- starts broad
- multidimensional in approach
- narrow to specific problem areas
3 fundamentals to successful assessments
- reliability
- validity
- standardization and norms
degree to which a measure is repeatable and consistent
reliability
across time (test-retest), rather (inter-rater reliability), items (internal consistency)
consistency in measurement
the degree to which a measure captures what it is designed to do (ex. does an IQ test measure intelligence?)
what does the test measure, and how well does it do so
validity
you cannot have validity if you do not have ___
reliability
reliability does not mean that you have ___
validity
reliability is a necessary but ___ sufficient aspect of validity
NOT
the degree to which the content of a test is representative of the domain it is supposed to cover
does the measure capture a full range of concepts?
content validity
___ questions could be a good component of content validity
somatic
a mathematics teacher develops an end-of-semester algebra test for her class
-the test should cover every form of algebra that was taught in the class
-if some types of algebra are left out, then the results may not be an accurate indication of students’ understanding of the subject
-similarly, if she includes questions that are not related to algebra, the results are no longer a valid measure of algebra knowledge
example of content validity
scores on the measure are related to other measures of the same construct
is it related to other validated measures of the same construct?
convergent validity
the scores of two tests, one measuring self-esteem and the other measuring extroversion, are likely to be correlated—individuals scoring high in self-esteem are more likely to score high in extroversion
example of convergent validity
the extent to which a measure is related to an outcome
is it related to other constructs that are thought to be related to?
criterion validity
a university professor creates a new test to measure applicants’ english writing ability
-to assess how well the test really does measure students’ writing ability, she finds an existing test that is considered a valid measurement of english writing ability, and compares the results when the same group of students take both tests. If the outcomes are very similar
example of criterion validity
scores on the measure are not related to other measures that are theoretically different
-want to show that it has specificity and is more narrowed, correlates to things it should or shouldn’t be related
discriminant validity
the scores of two tests measuring security and loneliness theoretically should not correlate
example of discriminant validity
extent to which respondents can tell what the items are measuring
does it appear to measure what it is supposed to measure?
“do you feel sad?” is more collaborative with patient, but could be potentially skewed because patient will lie for things knowing what the questions are for
face validity
you create a survey to measure the regularity of people’s dietary habits
-you review the survey items, which ask questions about every meal of the day and snacks eaten in between for every day of the week
-on its surface, the survey seems like a good representation of what you want to test
example of face validity
the success with which a test predicts the behavior it is designed to predict; it is assessed by computing the correlation between test scores and the criterion behavior
does it predict important and relevant outcomes?
predictive validity
SAT scores are considered predictive of student retention: students with higher SAT scores are more likely to return for their sophomore year
example of predictive validity
the degree to which a test measures the construct, or psychological concept or variable, at which it is aimed; context dependent
construct validity
which measure of validity is most important?
construct validity
there is no objective, observable entity called “depression” that we can measure directly, but based on existing psychological research and theory, we can measure depression based on a collection of symptoms and indicators, such as low self-confidence and low energy levels
example of construct validity
-foster consistent use of techniques
-provide population benchmarks for comparison
standardization and norms
examples of ___ and ___ include: administration procedures, scoring, and evaluation of data and IQ tests
standardization and norms
an interview method in which the researcher uses a flexible, conversational style to probe for the participant’s point of view
clinical interview
the most common clinical assessment method
clinical interview
no fixed set of questions and no systematic scoring procedure - involves asking probing questions to find out what the applicant is like
unstructured interview
this interview method is most commonly used for time and convenience (could lead to a misdiagnosis)
unstructured interview
there is a list of questions that have been worked out in advance, but interviewers are also free to ask follow up questions when they feel it is appropriate
semi-structured interview
this interview method is less spontaneous and feels less natural and takes more time (commonly used in for research purposes)
semi-structured interview
interview in which the researcher has determined what questions are important, the order in which they will be asked, and how they will be structured (no departure, and you cannot ask to clarify)
fully structured interview
college students could use this interview method since they do not have the expertise
fully structured interview
questions that should be asked in an interview: (8)
- presenting problem (when it started, participating in events)
- current and past behavior relevant to the problem
- detailed history including trauma and abuse
- educational history
- work history
- romance
- substance abuse
- past psychological and physical problems; treatment used
