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exam 1 Flashcards

1
Q

how are electrical potentials generated across neuronal membranes

A
  1. ion concentration gradients
  2. selective permeability
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2
Q

what type of transporter establishes ion concentration gradients

A

active transporters

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3
Q

what type of cell creates selective permeability in the direction of the conc gradients

A

ion channels

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4
Q

when chemical gradients equals to electrical gradient

A

electrochemical equilibrium

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5
Q

what ions are more concentrated outside cell

A

na, cl, ca2+

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6
Q

what ion is more conc inside cell

A

k+

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7
Q

measures the electrical activity of neurons

A

electrophysiological recordings

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8
Q

an electrode is placed near the neuron to detect its activity

*only detects temporal patterns of several action potentials (spikes)

A

extracellular recording

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9
Q

electrode is placed inside the neuron

-detects smaller, graded changes of electrical potential

*detects resting mem potential, receptor potential, synaptic potential, wave form of a single action potential

A

intracellular recording

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10
Q

due to the activation of sensory receptor neurons by external stimuli

A

receptor potential

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11
Q

due to the activation of synapses

A

synaptic potentials

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12
Q

a brief active all or none electrical response of the neuron after stimuli that causes mem potential to meet or exceed stimuli

*ALWAYS SAME SIZE AND ONLY FREQUENCY CHANGES

A

action potentials

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13
Q

if current inject makes the membrane potential at or more positive than this even, action potential occur

A

threshold potential

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14
Q

chemical conc gradient that causes k+ ti move inside to outside

A

chemical force

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15
Q

an opposing electrical gradient (electrical potential) that increasing tends to stop k+ from moving across the membrane

A

electrical force

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16
Q

electrical potential generated across membrane at electrochemcial equilibrium

-AKA reversal potential b/c the current reverse polarity at this point (inward and outward equal)
-can be predicted by Nernst Equation

A

equilibrium potential

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17
Q

relation of equilibrium potential to the conc gradient

-MEMBRANE PERMEABLE TO ONE TYPE OF ION

A

nearest equation

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18
Q

equilibrium potential when the membrane is PERMEABLE to SEVERAL IONS

A

Goldman equation

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19
Q

what were Hodgkins and Katz conclusions

A
  1. membrane of resting neuron is more permeable to k+ in comparison to any other ion
  2. there is more K+ inside than outside

-changing mem potential to a level more pos than the threshold potential produces 2 effects: an EARLY INFLUX OF NA+ INTO NEURON and DELAYED EFFLUX OF K+

*RESTING MEM POTENTIAL IS LARGELY DETERMINED BY K+ SELECTIVE PERMEABILITY AND K+ CONC GRADIENT

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20
Q

what causes the mem potential of a neuron to depolarize during the action potential

A

increased na+ permeability

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21
Q

action potential is generated because of ___ conc gradient and transiently increased ___ permeability

A

Na+

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22
Q

neurons constitute ___ ___ which constitutes neural systems (what is it? )

A

neural circuits

-neurons –> circuits –> systems

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23
Q

who proposed the neuron doctrine

A

Santiago ramón y cajal

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24
Q

nerve cells are discrete entities

A

neuron doctrine

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25
Q

body of the neurons

A

soma

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26
Q

what sends info

A

axon

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27
Q

what receives info in neuron

A

dendrites

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28
Q

the most abundant type of synapse

A

chemical synapse

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29
Q

the rare type of synapse that is facilitated by the gap junction

-permit direct, passive flow of electrical current from one neuron to another
-transmission of electrical synapses *BIDIRECTIONAL and extraordinarily fast without delay
-PORE OF CONNEXONS are much LARGER than voice –> allowing diffusion of ions, atp, intracellular metabolites, and second messengers

A

electrical synapse

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30
Q

what are the 4 types off glial cells in the CNS

A
  1. astrocyte s
  2. oligodendrocytes
  3. microglial cells
  4. glial stem cells
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31
Q

maintain an appropriate chemical environment for neuronal signaling

A

astrocytes

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32
Q

lays down myelin around some CNS axons

A

oligodendrocytes

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33
Q

removes myelin and cellular debris

A

microglial cells

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34
Q

some glial cells retain the capacity to proliferate and generate additional precursors or differentiated glial and sometimes neurons

2 types:

  1. astrocytes
  2. oligodendroglial precursors
A

glial stem cells

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35
Q

neurons organized into ensembles to process specific kinds of information

A

neural circuits

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36
Q

the dense tangle of dendrites, axons terminals, and glial cell processes; the region between nerve cell bodies where MOST SYNAPTIC CONNECTIVITY OCCURS

A

neuropil

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37
Q

nerve cells that carry information from periphery toward the brain or spinal cord

(SENSORY)

A

afferent / sensory neurons

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38
Q

nerve cells that carry info away from the brain or spinal cord

A

Efferent neurons / motor neurons

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39
Q

participate only in the local aspects of a circuit

A

interneurons / local circuit neurons

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40
Q

calcium indicators or genetically encoded calcium sensors

A

calcium imaging

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41
Q

channelrhodopsin

A

optogenetics

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42
Q

neural circuits that process similar types of info make up neural systems

A

neural system

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43
Q

nerve cell bodies that resides in the PNS

A

ganglia

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44
Q

bundle of peripheral axons

A

nerves

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45
Q

how are nerve cells in the CNS arranged

A
  1. nuclei
  2. cortex
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46
Q

local accumulations of neurons that have roughly similar connections and functions

A

nuclei

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47
Q

sheet like arrays of nerve cells

A

cortex

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48
Q

gathering of CNS axons

A

tracts

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49
Q

tracts that cross the midline of the brain

A

commissures

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50
Q

any accumulation of cell bodies and neuropil in the brain and spinal cord

A

gray matter

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51
Q

axon tracts and commissures in the CNS

A

white matter

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52
Q

what is part of CNS

A
  1. Brain:
    -cerebral hemisphere
    -diencephalon (thalamus/hypothalamus)
    -cerebellum
    -brainstem
  2. spinal cord
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53
Q

cranial nerve ganglia, dorsal root ganglia (spinal ganglia), cranial nerves and spinal nerves

A

sensory ganglia and nerve

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54
Q

do motor nerves belong to PNS or CNS

A

PNS

motor neuron cell bodies belong to the CNS

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55
Q

autonomic ganglia and nerves are part of what motor division

A

visceral / autonomic motor division

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56
Q

small ganglia and neuron through the wall of the gut control mastic motility and secretions

A

enteric nervous system

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57
Q

during restating state what is more permeable K+ or Na+

A

K+

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58
Q

technique allows experimenters to control membrane potential and simultaneously measure the permeability changes

A

voltage clamp method

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59
Q

controls or clamps membrane potential at any desired level

A

voltage clamp

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60
Q

controls or clamps INJECTED currents at any desired level

A

current clamp

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61
Q

-pos ions moving into the cells
-depolarization on voltage trace

A

inward current

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62
Q

pos ions moving out of the cell
-hyperpolarization on voltage trace

A

outward current

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63
Q

selective Na+ channel blocker blocks early current

A

tetrodotoxin TTX

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64
Q

selective K+ channel blocker blocks late current

A

(TEA)

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65
Q

ability for ions to flow across the mem, defined as the reciprocal of the mem resistance (R)

A

membrane conductance

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66
Q

what prevents backward propagation

A

refractoriness

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67
Q

the time required for electrical info to travel from one end of a neuron to another

A

conduction velocity

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68
Q

how does myelination increase conduction velocity

A
  1. insulate the axonal mem to increase passive current flow
  2. saltatory conduction
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69
Q

can measure the currents flowing through single channels

A

patch clamp method

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70
Q

the currents flowing through single channels

A

microscopic currents

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71
Q

the currents flowing through a large number of channels

A

macroscopic currents

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72
Q

-inward
-inactivated during depolarization

A

single Na+ channel

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73
Q

outward
activated during depolarization

A

single K+ channel

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74
Q

___ channel has 3 conformations: open (depolarization, ion flow), inactivated (depolarization no ion flow) , close (hyperpolarization, no ion flow)

A

VNa+

75
Q

___ channel has 2 conformation: open (depolarization, ion flow) and close (hyper polarization, no ion flow)

A

VK+

76
Q

opening channel is influenced by different factors or stimuli

-non gated or leak channel
-voltage gate channels (contains VOLTAGE SENSORS)
-ligand gated channels

– extracellular ligands: many are neurotransmitters
–intracellular ligands : many are 2nd messengers
–an extraordinary ligand : light/photons: channelrhodopsin

A

gating mechanism

77
Q

voltage gated Na+ channel genes are coded by what gene

A

SCN

78
Q

voltage gated Ca2+ channel genes are coded by what gene

A

CACNA

-regulated any biochemical signaling processes and release of NTs at synapse

79
Q

what channel is the largest and most diverse class of VGIC and what gene are they encoded by

A

K+ ; KCN

80
Q

voltage gated Cl- channel genes are coded by what gene and what do they do

A

CLCN: control excitability, contribute to resting potential

81
Q

ion channel pores account for ion conductance and are formed by:

A
  1. transmem PORE HELICES
  2. PORE LOOPS in btw pore helices
  3. WATER FILLED CAVITY
  4. SELECTIVITY FILTER
  5. CHARGED VOLTAGE SENSORS that account for voltage sensitivity
82
Q

Na+ and Ca2+ channels can be produced by ___ protein and K+ channel made up of ___ subunits

A

one; multiple

83
Q

genetic diseases result from mutation in ion channel genes

A

channelopathies

84
Q

don’t directory use ATP but use the electrochemical gradient of other co-transported ions as an energy source

A

ion exchangers

85
Q

exchange intracellular and extracellular ions

A

antiporters

86
Q

carry multiple ions in the same direction

A

cotransporters

87
Q

contain precisely aligned paired channels called CONNEXONS:

made of 6 presynaptic conexiones aligned with 6 postsynaptic connexions to form a pore

A

gap junction

88
Q

what are the functions of electrical synapses

A
  1. synchronize electrical activity among population of neurons
  2. coordinate intracellular signaling of coupled cells
89
Q

what are the functions of chemical synapses

A

-majority of neuronal connections and mediate most synaptic transmission in nervous system

90
Q

-gap btw pre and post synaptic neurons called synaptic cleft
-needs to use chemicals called NTs to transmit signals
-mediate ionic signaling
*SLOW and UNIDIRECTIONAL (from pre to post synaptic)

A

chemical synapse

91
Q

what is the signal transmission at chemical synapses

A
  1. action potential invades the presynaptic axonal terminal
  2. depolarization of mem potential leads to opening of vg calcium channels
  3. influx of ca2+ allows synaptic vesicles to fuse with presynaptic mem
  4. Its released into synaptic cleft via exocytosis
  5. Nts bind to receptors in postsynaptic mem causing Chanels to open or close
  6. Nts- induced postsynaptic current increases or decreases the probability that the postsynaptic cells will fire an action potential ( the excitability)
  7. removal of Nts by diffusion, recycle, glial uptake or enzymatic degradation
92
Q

when more than 1 transmitter is presented within a nerve terminal, the molecules are called

A

co-transmitters

93
Q

what are the 3 criteria that define a NT

A
  1. substance must be PRESENT WITHIN THE PRESYNAPTIC NEURON
  2. the substance must be RELEASED IN RESPONSE TO PRESYNAPTIC DEPOLARIZATION and the release must be Ca2+ DEPENDENT
  3. specific RECEPTORS for the substance must be PRESENT ON THE POSTSYNAPTIC CELL
94
Q

a transient depolarization of the postsynaptic muscle fiber elicited by an action potential from the postsynaptic motor neuron

A

end plate potential (EPP)

95
Q

spontaneous changes in muscle cell mem potential without stimulation from the presynaptic motor neuron

A

miniature end plate potentials (MEPPs)

96
Q

EPP responses occur in units about the size of single MEPPs

EPPs : made of individual units each equivalent to a MEPP

A

Quantal fluctuations of EPP amplitudes

97
Q

release of ACH occurs in discrete packets each equivalent to a _____

A

MEPP

98
Q

what is the synaptic vesicle cycle in presynaptic terminals

A

exocytosis – vesicle fuse –> endocytosis

99
Q

fused vesicle mem is retrieved into cytoplasm of the nerve terminal by ENDOCYTOSIS

A

Heuser and Resse HRP experiment

100
Q

coated vesicle –> endosome –> synaptic vesicles

A

endocytosis

101
Q

maintain receiver pool by tethering vesicles to each other and to actin

location: vesicles

A

synapsin

102
Q

mobilize reserve pool vesicles by phosphorylation of synapsin

location: in cytoplasm near vesicles

A

CaMKII

103
Q

organize snare proteins into a complex and is involved in mem fusion

A

-synaptobrevein
-snap -25
-synataxin

*ALL ARE SNARE PROTEINS

104
Q

Ca2+ sensor sensing the elevation of ca2+ in terminal and triggering vesicle fusion

location: vesicles

A

synatotagmin

105
Q

combine transmitter binding and channel functions into a single molecular entity

*FAST

A

ionotropic receptors / ligand gated ion channels

106
Q

movement of ions through a channel depends on interfering metabolic steps, no channel as part of the structure and indirectly affects channels through activation of G protein

*SLOWER

A

metabotropic receptor / G protein coupled receptors

107
Q

the macroscopic current resulting from the summed opening of many Ach gated channels on muscle membranes

A

end plate current (EPC)

108
Q

the potential where the direction of EPC reverses or the membrane potential at which there is NO NET FLOW OF IONS

A

reverse potential

109
Q

for postsynaptic neurons, the reversal potential I the mem potential at which a given NT causes ___ net current flow of ions through that transmitter gated receptor channel

A

NO

110
Q

Vm < Erev = EPC is ___

A

inward

111
Q

Vm > Erev = EPC is ___

A

outward

112
Q

Vm = Erev = EPC is ___

A

zero

113
Q

T/F ACh gated ion channels are almost equally permeable to both sodium and potassium

A

T

114
Q

currents generated from opening or sometimes closing of ion channels by transmitter binding to postsynaptic rectors in chemical synapses

A

postsynaptic current

115
Q

changes of the postsynaptic mem potential due to PSC in chemical synapses

A

postsynaptic potential

116
Q

the action of a transmitter always drives the postsynaptic mem potential toward ___

A

Erev

117
Q

inward current hyperpolarizes or depolarizes?

A

depolarizes

118
Q

outward current hyperpolarizes or depolarizes

A

hyperpolarization

119
Q

Erev > threshold –> ___

A

excitation

120
Q

Erev < threshold –> ___

A

inhibitory

121
Q

EPSPs produced by individual excitation synapses are usually well below the threshold for generating postsynaptic action potentials

A

sub threshold EPSPs

122
Q

catecholamines (dopamine, NE, EPI, 5HT, His)

A

biogenic amines

123
Q

-ACh
-Neuropeptides
-Endocanabinoids
-Nitric Oxide
-substance P

what is the removal mechanism

A

enzymatic degradation

124
Q

Glu, GABA, Gly, catecholamines, 5-HT , His are removed by?

A

reuptake

125
Q

NTs are removed through?

A

diffusion, REUPTAKE, into nerve terminals, or glial cells and enzymatic degradation

126
Q

neuropeptides are removed through?

A

enzymatic degradation

127
Q

what kind of vesicle do small molecule transmitters have

A

small clear core vesicles

128
Q

what kind of vesicles do peptide transmitters have

A

large dense core vesicles

129
Q

location: NMKs

functions: CHOLINERGIC TRANSMISSION AT NMJs and ganglionic synapses

removal: enzymatic digestion by acetylcholinesterase

A

AChE

130
Q

Agonist ligand : nicotine

-receptor type: ionotropic receptor

-function: ligand gated nonselective cation channel

postsynaptic response: fast excitatory

structure: protein complex consisting of 5 subunits

distribution: most cholinergic synapses except those in the brain all in the PNS

A

nicotinic ACh

131
Q

Agonist ligand : muscarine

-receptor type: metabotropic receptor

-function: GPCR

postsynaptic response: slow excitatory or inhibitory

structure: SINGLE PROTEIN, 7 helical transmem domains

distribution: most cholinergic synapses in the brain

A

muscarinic Ach receptor

132
Q

all GPCRs are a single protein containing ___ transmem domains

A

7

133
Q

all ionotropic receptors at fast acting synapses Are comprised of several ___ ___ to form a ligand gated ion channel

A

receptor subunits

134
Q

*most important excitatory transmitter

location and function: nearly all excitatory CNS neurons are glutamatergic

*removal: uptake by excitatory amino acid transporters into gilal cells

A

glutamate

135
Q

damage or death of neurons caused by excessive release of glutamate + excessive stimulation of the glutamate receptors

A

excitotoxicity

136
Q

the cycle of glutamate synthesis from glutamine and glutamate removal between glial cells and presynaptic terminals

-functions: to main an adequate supply of glutamate for synaptic transmission and to terminate postsynaptic glutamate action

A

glutamate-glutamine cycle

137
Q

agonist: AMPA
channel type: glutamate gated cation channel for Na+ and K+

post synaptic response: excitatory; EPSCs are large and faster

function: primary mediators of excitatory transmission in the brain

structural properties: protein complex of 4 subunits

A

AMPAR

138
Q

agonist: NMDA

channel type: glutamate gated cation channel for Na, K, Ca**

postsynaptic responseL excitatory EPSCs are smaller, slower and long lasting

function: use ca2+ as a second messenger to activate intracellular signaling cascades mediate some forms of synaptic info storage

structural properties: voltage dependent block of the channel pore by Mg2+: Mg 2+ blocks the NMDAR pore at the hyperpolariation while postsynaptic depolarization pushed Mg2+ out of the pore opening of NMDARs require co-presence of glutamate and postsynaptic depolarization**

A

NMDAR

139
Q

both AMPAR and NMDAR are comprised of ___ protein subunits. they are tetrameric proteins

A

4

140
Q

postsynaptic response:

  • slow or
  • excitatory or inhibitory
    GPCRs: 7 helical membrane spanning domains
A

metabotropic glutamate receptors

141
Q

-most inhibitory synapses in CNS use either ____ or ___ as NTs

A

GABA & Glycine

142
Q

location: mostly found in local circuit interneurons
____ is found almost exclusively in GABAergic neurons

loading into vesicles: transporter
Removal: uptake by co-transporters in neurons and glia

A

GABA

GAD___ is found almost exclusively in GABAergic neurons

143
Q

location and function: distribution is more localized than GABA, half of the inhibitory synapses in spinal cord use ____, most other inhibitory synapses use GABA

loading into vesicles: transporter
removal: uptake by co-transporters in neurons and glia

A

glycine

144
Q

GABA receptors are ionotropic or metabotropic?

A

ionotrobic and are GABA gated anion channels for CL so activation of thees causes an Cl influx and inhibits postsynaptic cells

145
Q

ionotropic glycine receptors are what

A

pentamers and ligand gated Cl channels

146
Q

T/F all catecholamines are derived from a common precursor, threonine

A

F
TYROSINE

147
Q

function: coordination of body movements ***

loading into synaptic vesicles: transporters

removal: uptake by Na+ dependent dopamine co transporters (DAT) in neurons and glial cocaine and amphetamine inhibit DAT

-inhibitors of MAO and COMT are antidepressants

receptors: EXCLUSIVELY GCPRS

A

dopamine

148
Q

what are the receptors for NE and EPI

A

alpha and beta adrenergic receptors; both are GPCRs

149
Q

function: sleep and wakefulness

many antipsychotic drugs act on serotonergic pathway

removal: SERT

many antidepressant drugs are SSRIs or SNRIs

catabolism: MAO

receptors: implicated in emotions

A

receptors

150
Q

all synaptic vesicles contain ATP, which is co-released with ___ NTs

A

classical

151
Q

P2X receptors are trimeric and nonselective caption channels mediating excitatory postsynaptic responses

A

ionotropic purinergic receptors

152
Q

many peptide transmitters are ___

A

hormones

153
Q

functions: modulate emotions

-substance P and the opioid peptides are involved in the pain perception

removal: enzymatic degradation

receptors: virtually all peptide receptors are GPCRs

A

peptide NTs

154
Q

propertied precursors can give rise to more than one species of attic neuropeptides and multiple active peptides can be released rom a single vesicle therefore peptidergic synapses often elicit ___ ____ responses

A

complex postsynaptic

155
Q

-Brain and gut peptides

-coney pain and temp info of C fiber in PNS

-its release can be inhibited by opioid peptides thus the suppression of pain by opioid

A

substance P

156
Q

endogenous compounds that mimicked the actions of morphine

A

endorphins

157
Q

bind to postsynaptic receptors activated by opium

3 classes: endorphins, enkephalins, and dynorphins

function: depressants

A

opioid peptides

158
Q

ability of synapses to strengthen or weaken synaptic transmission in response to neural activity over time

A

synaptic plasticity

159
Q

changes last for a few mins or less

A

short term synaptic plasticity

160
Q

increased synaptic strength due to enhanced NT release: _____ ____ ____ ____

A

synaptic facilitation, augmentation, and potentiation

161
Q

changes last for more than 30 mins or longer

A

long term synaptic plasticity

162
Q

long lasting increase (strengthening) of a synaptic strength induced by a brief (few secs) continue high frequency patterned stimulus eating hours or days

increased synaptic strength due to **increased AMAP receptors it the postsynaptic cell surface

A

long term potentiation (LTP)

163
Q

decreased synaptic strength due to **reduced AMAP receptors in the postsynaptic cell surface

*induced by longer (10-15) mins continue low frequency patterned stimulus

A

long term depression (LTD)

164
Q

rapid increase in synaptic strength that occurs when 2 or more action potentials invade the presynaptic terminal within a few milli secs of each other

duration: lasts for ten of millisecond

mechanism: calcium builds up by several action potentials arriving close together in time – prolonged elevation of presynaptic calcium levels –> more NTs to be released by subsequent presynaptic action potential

A

synaptic facilitation

165
Q

rapid decrease in synaptic strength during sustained synaptic activity

duration: hundreds of millisecond

mechanism: depletion of the readily releasable pool (RRP) of synaptic vesicles –> declined NT release

A

synaptic depression

166
Q

after synaptic activity, increase in synaptic strength over LONGER TIME SCALE than synaptic facilitation

duration: few secs and potentiation acts over tens of secs to mins

A

synaptic augmentation and potentiation

167
Q

elevation of presynaptic calcium levels –> increased NT release

A

mechanism of augmentation + potentiation

168
Q

an increase in the synaptic strength of a given stimulus at a given synapse after a tetanic stimulus

A

Post tetanic potentiation (PTP)

169
Q

drank the duration of short term synaptic plasticity

A

facilitation < augmentation = depression < Potentiation

170
Q

precess that causes the animal to become less responsive to treated occurrences of a stimulus

A

habituation

171
Q

process that allows an animal to generalize an aversive response elicited by a noxious stimulus to a variety of other non noxious stimulus

A

sensitization

172
Q

how do you have a bit long term

A

increase protein phosphorylation (post translational modification)

173
Q

how do you have long lasting term

A

increase gene expression and protein synthesis

174
Q

how do you have short term plasticity

A

increase calcium conc -> increase calcium binding protein activity to promote vesicle fusion –> Increase transmitter release

175
Q

LTP occurs only when pre and postsynaptic neurons are active (they both fire action potentials)

A

coincidence detector

176
Q

if there is no magnesium will LTP occur?

A

no

177
Q

NMDA receptor channel can open only during _______ of the postsynaptic neuron formats normal resting potential plus the binding of ___ to the receptor

A

depolarization ; glutamate

178
Q

Ca2+ entry through NMDARs leads to ___

A

LTP

179
Q

when LTP is induced by activation of one synapse, it does not occur in other inactive synapse that contact the same neuron

A

specificity

180
Q

if one synapse is weakly activate at the same time that a neighboring synapse onto the same cell is strongly activated , both synapses undergo LTP

A

associativity

181
Q

induction: brief high frequency stimulation

receptor recruitment: NMDAR

postsynaptic ca3+ signal: large and fast rise

ca2+ action: activate kinases

require gene expression and protein synthesis

A

LTP

182
Q

induction: longer low frequency

receptor recruitment: NMDAR

postsynaptic ca3+ signal: small and slow rise

ca2+ action: activate phosphatases

require gene expression and protein synthesis

A

LTD

183
Q

what is in common btw hippocampal and cerebellar LTD

A

REMOVE AMPAR FROM THE SURFACE

AMPAR INTERNALIZATION

184
Q

what is the difference btw hippocampal and cerebellar LTD

A

hippocampal:
Ca action: activates PHOSPHATASES & uses NMDAR as coincidence detectors

Cerebellar:
Ca action: activates KINASES
and use mGluR/VCa2+ channels for calcium entry

neurobio (7 decks)

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