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Endocrinology and Mammalian Reproduction > Exam 1 > Flashcards

Exam 1 Flashcards

1
Q

The nervous system and endocrine system work together… (2 things)

A
  • to coordinate and direct the acitivity of cells
  • to maintain homeostasis
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2
Q

Nervous System (what does it do? 3 things)

A
  • reacts quickly 1-10 msec
  • the effect is short
  • uses electrical and chemical signals for communication
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3
Q

Endocrine System (what does it do?) 4 things

A
  • reacts slowly (min-days)
  • effect lasts longer
  • uses hormones for communication
  • control reproduction, growth, and development… more but idk if we need to remember this
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4
Q

What is homeostasis?

A
  • Maintenance of a stable internal environment = dynamic state of equilibrium
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5
Q

What is homeostatic imbalance?

A
  • a disturbance in homeostasis resulting in disease
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6
Q

Components of Homeostatic control (3)

A
  • receptor
  • control center
  • effector
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7
Q

Endocrine glands are

A

ductless glands that release hormones (chemical messengers) in the interstital fluids or directly into the bloodstream

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8
Q

Major endocrine organs (6)

A
  • pituitary
  • thyroid
  • parathyroid
  • adrenal
    -pancreas
  • gonads
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9
Q

The hypothalamus is a…

A

neuroendocrine organ (some neurons secrete hormones)

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10
Q

Endocrine vs. Exocrine (secretion)

A

Endo- product secreted into the interstitial area and eventually to the blood
Exo - product secreted into a duct

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11
Q

Hormones (2)

A
  • chemical messengers that are released by endocrine cells – travel to target cells
  • Target cells also have a specific receptor for the hormone (membrane or intracellular)
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12
Q

Receptors (3 general facts how they work)
2 examples of them

A
  • specifically binds a hormone or group of hormones
  • Binding with hormone activates the receptor
  • As a result signal transduction occurs and a response is elicited
  • GPCR and Tyrosine Kinase
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13
Q

Paracrine factors…

A

act locally affecting cell types other than those that release them

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14
Q

Autocrine factors…

A

act on the same type of cells that secrete them

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15
Q

Steroid (lipid-based) hormones (2 general facts)

A
  • derived from cholesterol
  • have intracellular receptors
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16
Q

Hydrophilic and lipophobic are what kind of hormones

A

Protein Hormones

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17
Q

Hydrophobic and Lipophilic are what kind of hormones

A

steroid hormones

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18
Q

Steroid Hormones (mechanism of action) hint: straight

A

go straight into the cell membrane (nucleus), causing transciption

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19
Q

Which hormones have a second messenger system?

A

protein hormones

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20
Q

Hypo is

A

decreased/low

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21
Q

Hyper

A

too high

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22
Q

*How are steroid hormones made?

A
  1. Cholesterol is transported into the mitochondria by the StAR protein (rate-limiting step)
  2. Side-chain cleavage enzyme, a mitochondrial enzyme, converts cholesterol to pregnenolone
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23
Q

What zone is Aldosterone made up in?

A

Zona glomerulosa Mineralocorticoids

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24
Q

What zone is Cortisol made up in?

A

Zona fasciculata Glucocorticoids

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25
Q

What zone is Testosterone made up in? (Adrenal)

A

zona reticularis Androgens

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26
Q

What zone is the makeup of testosterone to make Estradiol? (Ovaries)

A

Theca cell

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27
Q

What are the zones that makeup estradiol? (Ovaries)

A

Theca
granulosa cell

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28
Q

What hormone(s) are secreted by the gland? (Adrenal gland)

A

Aldosterone
Cortisol
Androstenedione

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29
Q

What hormones are secreted by the gland? (Ovaries)

A

Progesterone
Estradiol

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30
Q

What type of steroid hormones are made in the ovaries?

A

Sex hormones/reproductive hormones

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31
Q

How many compartments are involved in secretion of the hormones? (Ovaries)

A

2
Theca cells
granulosa cells

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32
Q

Progesterone needs how many compartments? What are they?

A

1 cell
Granulosa

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33
Q

Testosterone is what kind of hormone is made in the what (steroid)?

A

sex hormone made in the ovarian theca cell

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34
Q

Placenta is a what that synthesizes…

A

endocrine structure that synthesizes estrogen and progesterone

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35
Q

P/S: This hormone binds to tyrosine kinase receptor

A

protein/amino acid

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36
Q

P/S: The receptor for this hormone is found within the nucleus

A

Steroid

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37
Q

P/S: The signal from this hormone is amplified through a second messenger system

A

Protein/amino acid

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38
Q

P/S: This hormone’s activated receptors binds to a specific DNA sequence

A

steroid

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39
Q

P/S: This pituitary gland product is secreted as a pro-hormone before it is activated

A

protein/amino

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40
Q

P/S: This adrenal gland product is synthesized from cholesterol

A

steroid

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41
Q

P/S: This messenger activated a G-protein coupled receptor

A

protein/amino

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42
Q

P/S: Activation of this hormone’s receptor causes an increase in cellular calcium levels

A

Protein/amino

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43
Q

P/S: Adrenaline (epinephrine) uses the cAMP second messenger system

A

protein/amino

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44
Q

P/S: A glucocorticoid produced by the adrenal gland

A

steroid

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45
Q

The hypothalamus is connected to…(physcially)

A

the pituitary gland (hypophysis) by the infundibular stock (pituitary stock)

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46
Q

The hypothalamus controls 3 major systems to maintain homeostasis…

A

Autonomic nervous system
Neuroendocrine system
limbic system

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47
Q

The pituitary gland is responsible for

A

production of hormones that regulate the function of many endocrine glands in the body

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48
Q

Factors secreted in the hypothalamus travel to the anterior pituitary through… PORTAL SYSTEM

A

the blood

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49
Q

Which has a faster response? (protein/steroid hormones)

A

protein hormones

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50
Q

7 hormones produced from Anterior Pituitary (Protein)

A

ACTH
GH
MSH
TSH
FSH
LH
Prolactin

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51
Q

2 hormones produced from Posterior pituitary (Protein)

A

ADH (Vasopressin)
Oxytocin

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52
Q

GnRH

A

Gonadotropin releasing hormone

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53
Q

GHRH

A

growth hormone releasing hormone

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54
Q

SS

A

somatostatin (growth hormone inhibting hormone, GHIH)

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55
Q

TRH

A

thyroid releasing hormone

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56
Q

DA

A

dopamine (prolactin-inhibiting hormone)

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57
Q

CRH

A

corticotropin releasing hormone

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58
Q

What kind of connection between the hypothalamus and posterior pituitary? think TRACT

A

neural connection
Hypothalamo-hypophyseal tract

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59
Q

Synthesis and release of most hormones are controlled by a…

A

negative feedback mechanism

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60
Q

Negative feedbacks works in the…

A

opposite direction of the initial change (corrective adjustment)

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61
Q

Regulation of hypothalamic and anterior pituitary hormone secretion occurs via negative feedback (3 main steps)

A
  • hypothalamus secretes a releasing/inhibiting factor
  • cells in the anterior pituitary secrete another hormone in response to the hypothalamic factor
  • hormone will then travel to a distant target gland
  • the target gland secretes a hormone which travels to target cells
  • when physiological change is sufficient to bring the body back to homeostasis, the hormone acts back at the hypothalamus and pituitary to suppress the activity of the axis
62
Q

Positive feedback works as (2 things)

A
  • result/response enhances the original stimulus
  • the resulting change is in the same direction as the original stimulus
63
Q

5 hypothalamic peptides

A
  1. TRH (thyrotropin-releasing hormone)
  2. GnRH (gonadotropin-releasing hormone)
  3. CRH (corticotropin-releasing hormone)
  4. GHRH (growth hormone-releasing hormone)
  5. GHIH (growth hormone-inhibiting hormone, Somatostatin)
64
Q

Dopamine is a…
Secreted by…

A

a) neurotransmitter
b) secreted by neurons in the arcuate nucleus

65
Q

In the absence of dopamine…

A

prolactin is continuously secreted by the lactotrope cells (lactotrophs) of the anterior pituitary

66
Q

Where do protein hormones bind?

A

on the surface of the cell

67
Q

What is the process called where the external signal (hormones) is transduced via internal intermediaries

A

signal transduction

68
Q

GnRH releases…

A

FSH and LH

69
Q

GHRH release and SS inhibts…

A

Growth hormone

70
Q

TRH releases

A

TSH

71
Q

DA inhibits

A

prolactin

72
Q

CRH released

A

ACTH

73
Q

Median eminence

A

function link btwn hypothalamus and anterior pituitary gland (blood circulation that will deliver to anterior pituitary

74
Q

Infundibulum

A

physical connection between hypothalamus and pituitary

75
Q

Anatomy of hypothalamus

A

composed of diff nuclei that regulate body function

76
Q

Thyrotrope to ____ to ____

A

TRH to TSH

77
Q

Gonadotroph to _____ to ______

A

GnRH to LH/FSH

78
Q

Corticotrope to ____ to _____

A

CRH to ACTH

79
Q

Somatotroph to ____ to ______

A

GHRH/GHIH to GH

80
Q

Lactotroph to ____ to _____

A

PRH/PIH (Dopamine) to prolactin

81
Q

4 tropic anterior pituitary hormones

A

TSH
ACTH
FSH
LH

82
Q

Tropic effect

A

growth promoting

83
Q

Tropic effect of TSH

A

maintains size and functional integrity of the thyroid glands

84
Q

Tropic effect of ACTH

A

involved in growth of adrenal cells

85
Q

Tropic effect of LH and FSH

A

LH: ovulation in females, production of testosterone by Leydig cells in males
FSH: development of egg cell, development of sperm cells

86
Q

Prolactin regulates the…

A

synthesis of milk by the mammary glands

87
Q

What are the two hormones synthesized by the magnocellular neurons of the hypothalamus?

A

vasopressin (ADH)
Oxytocin (OT)

88
Q

ADH (vasopressin) is a regulator of

A

water balance

89
Q

Oxytocin is released during…

A

Sex, orgasm, birth, breastfeeding

90
Q

Oxytocin reduces

A

Stress and has calming effect

91
Q

4 second messenger systems

A
  • cAMP
  • Protein kinase activity
  • IP2/Ca2 DAG
  • cGMP
92
Q

cAMP second messenger system

A
  1. cAMP is generated from ATP through the action of the enzyme adenylate cyclase
  2. cAMP activates PKA
  3. when activated, PKA phosphorylates a number of other proteins EXAMPLE: glycogen is broken down to release glucose
    Examples: glucagon, ADH, LH, FSH
93
Q

Tyrosine Kinase Second Messenger System

A
  • Phosphorylation of tyrosine residues on other proteins
  • multiple signal transduction occurs
  • ultimately activate transcription factors
    Ex: insulin
94
Q

IP3/Ca2 DAG second messenger system

A
  • IP3 allows for release of calcium (second messenger) from the endoplasmic reticulum
  • DAG (second messenger) activates protein kinase C which in turn phosphorylates proteins in the cell
    ex: GnRH, TRH
95
Q

cGMP mechanism

A

Activates PKG
Nitric oxide activates guanylate cyclase which converts GTP to cGMP

96
Q

Stimulus suckling (oxytocin)

A

Stimulates contraction of myoepithelial cells in the mammary glands (milk let down)

97
Q

Stretching/dilation of the cervix

A

Stimulates uterine contraction (labor)

98
Q

Prolactin and Oxytocin (milk)
What does each have to do with milk?

A

Prolactin promotes milk synthesis
Oxytocin activates the milk letdown reflex

99
Q

Circadian cycle

A
  • 24 hr cycle
  • changes are linked to light and dark
100
Q

Biological clock does what

A

Produces the circadian rhythm and regulates their time

101
Q

Pinealocytes are

A

Secretory cells that make up the pineal gland
Major product= melatonin

102
Q

Melatonin affects on what in animals

A

Mating behavior and gonadal size

103
Q

Melatonin may control production of

A

Antioxidant and detoxification molecules within cells

104
Q

Receptors for Melatonin are what and what types ?

A

G-Protein Coupled (GPCRs)
M1 and M2

105
Q

Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN)

A

Central biological clock
Exposure to bright light can reset clock timing

106
Q

SCN change melatonin lvls influence on (3)

A

Body temp
Sleep
Appetite

107
Q

Sleep and jetlag acts on…

A

the SCN to entrain the central clock to external light/dark

108
Q

In day animals, what happens with glucocorticoid levels and how does melatonin take effect?

A
  • glucocorticoid levels are low after the onset of darkness and are high early in the morning
  • due to inhibitory effects of melatonin
109
Q

Melatonin Seasonal breeders (short/long, example)

A

Short-day breeder = sheep
long day breeder = quail

110
Q

Melatonin levels are ___ during childhood.
Levels ____ at puberty

A

high
decrease

111
Q

Patients with pre-eclampsia have…

A

lower nocturnal melatonin

112
Q

Melatonin also believed to reduce

A

oxidative stress

113
Q

Melatonin is a (think of systems)

A

pineal gland product

114
Q

Vasopressin aka ___ is synthesized by neurons in the ____

A
  • ADH, anti-diuretic hormone
  • supraoptic nucleus (SON)
115
Q

Describe G-protein couple receptors

A
  • single polypeptide chain with 7 transmembrane domains
  • receptor associated with a G-protein
  • when ligand (hormone) binds, the Gsa becomes activated and associates with a membrane-bound enzyme
116
Q

What types of hormones bind a nuclear receptor?

A

Steroid hormones
- testosterone progesterone

117
Q

What kind of receptors do protein hormones have?

A

Membrane bound

118
Q

Hormonal interaction: permissiveness

A

Situation when a hormone cannot exert its effects without the presence of another hormone
- repro hormones will not stimulate growth/development without thyroid hormone

119
Q

Hormonal interaction: synergism

A

The combined effects of more than one hormone have a greater effect than the effect of any single one of the hormones
- glucagon and epinephrine both cause release of glucose from the liver

120
Q

Hormonal interaction: Antagonism

A

One hormone opposes the action of another hormone
- insulin lowers blood glucose levels while glucagon increases

121
Q

What is steroidogenesis?

A

Process of steroid hormone formation/synthesis

122
Q

Which hormones are steroid hormones? (Sex hormones)

A

Estrogens - estradiol
Androgens - testosterone
Progesterone

123
Q

Which hormones are steroid hormones? (Placenta)

A

Progesterone
Estrogens

124
Q

What is the adenohypophysis?

A

Anterior pituitary

125
Q

What is the neurohypophysis?

A

Posterior pituitary

126
Q

Thyroid gland (3 characteristic)

A
  • Bi-lobed in cats/dogs
  • Highly vascular
  • Affects different metabolic pathways
127
Q

Parathyroid glands are located on the ______ aspect

A

Dorsal

128
Q

Thyroid hormone is composed of 2 linked…

A

Thyrosine amino acids with iodine

129
Q

Types of thyroid hormones secreted

A

Thyroxine (T4)
Tri-iodothyronine (T3)
Iodine essential for thyroid hormone synthesis

130
Q

Synthesis of thyroid hormone (T4 and T3) occurs…

A

In the thyroid follicle

131
Q

Hormonal Stimulus: GH effects (direct and indirect)

A

Direct: metabolic, anti-insulin, proteins
Indirect: growth promoting, IGF-1, skeletal/muscle systems, increase bone, cartilage, muscle

132
Q

IGF1

A

Insulin-Like Growth factor 1

133
Q

Hormonal Stimulus (Adrenal) steps

A

Anterior pituitary to Adrenal Cortex
ACTH to aldosterone and cortisol

134
Q

Humoral Stimulus

A

Substances in the blood
1. Capillary blood contains low concentrations of Ca2+ which stimulates
2. …secretion of parathyroid hormone by parathyroid glands

135
Q

Neural Stimulus

A
  1. Preganglionic sympathetic fibers stimulate adrenal medulla cells to
  2. Secrete catecholamines (epinephrine and norepinephrine)

An example of neural stimuli is the activation of the fight-or-flight response by the sympathetic nervous system. When an individual perceives danger, sympathetic neurons signal the adrenal glands to secrete norepinephrine and epinephrine.

136
Q

ADH (vasopressin) has how many receptors and what do they control?

A

V1: smooth muscle -> muscle contractions
V2 using cAMP system: kidneys -> keep/reabsorb water

137
Q

Both T4 and T3 bind….

A

Thyroid receptors

138
Q

Who is more biologically active? (T4/T3)

A

T3

139
Q

Thyroid Hormone (mech of action)

A
  1. Acts thru an intracellular receptor within the nucleus
  2. Initiates transcription and allows for synthesis of new proteins
  3. Alters cellular activity; increases ATP production and metabolic rate
140
Q

Physiological importance of Thyroid Hormone

A
  1. Regulates basal metabolic rate (BMR)
  2. Promotes nervous/skeletal system development and maturity/function of the repro system
  3. Regulates the synthesis of degradation of other hormones and growth factors (permissive effect)
  4. Regulation of blood pressure
141
Q

Thyroid hormone has a ____effect on many other hormones

A

Permissive

142
Q

Hyperthyroidism

A

Too much thyroid
- increased metabolic rate
- weight loss and good appetite
- heat intolerance
- tachycardia

143
Q

Graves’ disease

A

Autoimmune disease
Body makes antibodies against thyroid follicular cells that mimic TSH and continuously stimulate thyroid hormone release

144
Q

Goiter

A
  • dramatic enlargement of the thyroid gland
  • Excess stimulation of TSH
    iodine deficiency
145
Q

What is the role of the hypothalamus?

A

Integration of body functions for the maintenance of homeostasis

146
Q

Hypothalamus responsible for

A

Thermoregulation, neuroendocrine control, feeding/satiety and biological rhythms

147
Q

Supraoptic (SON) from nucleus in the hypothalamus functions…

A

Fluid balance
Milk let-down
Parturition

148
Q

What anterior pituitary cell populations are responsible for secreting each of the anterior pituitary products? (5)

A

Thyrotrope
Corticotroph
Lactotrope
Gonadotrope
Somatotrope

149
Q

Steps to processing images with eye (4)

A

Retina
hypothalamus
superior cervical ganglion
pineal gland

150
Q

Symptoms of Graves Disease

A
  • goiter
  • elevated metabolic rate
  • weight loss
151
Q

Symptoms of hypothyroidism

A
  • decreased metabolic rate
  • bradycardia (low heart rate)
  • weight gain and lack of appetite
  • cretinism (untreated hypothyroidism in the newborn)
  • heat seeking, childlike face

Endocrinology and Mammalian Reproduction (4 decks)

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