EXAM 1 Flashcards
What are the 3 fundamental organs found in plants?
Roots, Stems, Leaves
What are the characteristics of Monocotyledons?
- one cotyledon
- fibrous roots
- petals in multiples of 3
- narrow parallel veins on leaves
- scattered vascular bundles
- pollen grains have only 1 pore/furrow
What are the characteristics of Dicotyledons?
- two cotyledons
- tap roots
- have 4-5 petals
- oval/palmate, netlike veins in leaves
- ringed vascular bundles
- pollen grains have 3 pores/furrows
What is the Midrib?
the thick middle vein inside leaves
What makes up the shoot?
the leaves and the stem
What is the node?
points where leaves are attached to the stems
What is the internode?
area between nodes
What is the proximal end? Where is it located?
- the leaves and internodes that are located at the base of the shoot
What is the distal end? Where is it located?
- the leaves at the tip of the plant
How are leaves at the distal end generated?
- from a set of rapidly dividing cells at the apical meristem
What is the apical meristem? Where is it located
- it triggers the growth of new cells at the tips of roots and shoots, as well as forming buds
What is the terminal bud?
- the apical meristem cells of perennials and causes shoots to grow longer
What protects the terminal bud?
- bud scales which protect from weather, water and insects
What is the leaf Axil?
upper side of the point where the leaf attaches to the stem
What are axillary buds?
- an embryonic shoot located in the axil of the leaf
What do axillary buds contain?
dormant meristematic cells
What are bulbs?
Short, vertical subterranean stem with thick leaves that surround the stem, bulb scales protect the stem
What are stem tubers?
belowground stems modified for starch storage
Each ‘eye’ on a potato is a node where a new shoot could emerge
What is an example of a bulb?
onion
What is an example of a stem tuber?
potato
What is an example of a root tuber?
sweet potato
What is a root tuber?
Root modified for starch storage
What is a rhizome?
thick subterranean shoots that grow horizontally, are indeterminate, become very long, branch profusely and spread widely
- axillary buds are very active and grow large leaves above ground
What is an example of a rhizome?
ginger
What are tendrils?
long slender shoots that wrap around things they touch, some are modified leaves while others are modified branch roots from axillary buds
What is an example of a tendril?
grapes
What are stem succulents?
plants with broad stems that can hold water
What is an example of a stem succulent
Euphorbia polygona
What is a leaf succulent?
thick leaves (aloe) that store water in their leaves
What is an example of a leaf succulent?
Aloe vera
What do leaves do?
carry out photosynthesis
Being broad and thin helps leaves do what?
absorb light energy and CO2
What part of the vascular system collects the sugar made from photosynthesis and transports it to other parts of the plant?
Phloem
What part of the vascular system transports water from the roots?
Xylem
What makes up the vascular system?
Xylem and Phloem
What is the Lamina?
the expanded portion/blade of a leave
What is the Petiole?
the stalk that holds up the leave blades
What is a simple leaf?
blade composed of one piece
What is a compound leaf?
composed of several pieces called leaflets attached to a rachis
What is a pinnately compound leaf?
leaflets attached in 2 rows
What is a palmately compound leaf?
leaflets are attached to the same point on the rachis
What is Phyllotaxy?
arrangement of leaves around the stem, proper arrangement of leaves is important for providing sunlight and maximizing photosynthesis
What are the different types of phyllotaxy?
- alternate, opposite, decussate, whorled, spiral
What are the three basic domains of life?
Bacteria, Archaea, Eukarya
What is a shelterbelt?
a row of trees and or shrubs to provide fields shelter from the wind
Roots protect/stabilize the soil
True
Plants maintain an optimal environment
True
What plant prevents erosion on costal areas while also providing habitat for aquatic life?
Mangrove trees
Plants in sand/sand dunes help stabilize and hold the sand in place
True
What can cause erosion
soil that doesn’t have any roots
What type of plants cannot survive without human intervention such as ploughing, sowing seeds, providing pollinators, fertilization, irrigation, removing weeds?
Agriculturally important plants
Which domains of life are prokaryotes (don’t have cellular organisms)?
Bacteria and Archaea
Plants, fungi and animals fall under what classification?
Eukaryotes
Archaea are single celled organisms
True
What are the 5 major types of plants?
- algae
- bryophytes
- pteridophytes
- gymnosperm
- angiosperm
What is algae? What is an example of algae?
- ancestors of land plants, produce oxygen, started in water then moved to land, some of the first types of plants
- ulva
What is Bryophyte? What is an example?
- small plants without vascular system, don’t make cones/flowers/seeds, often grow together
- moss
What is Pteridophyte? What is an example?
- don’t produce seeds, have vascular system, large leaves with complex shapes. Produce spores that are visible on the underside of leaves, contain xylem and phloem
- fern
What is Gymnosperm? What is an example?
- seeds don’t develop within an ovary (fruit) known as naked seeds, include conifers, cycads, ginkgo, gnetophytes, produces cones, leaves are needle-like, live for a long amount of time, spruce(conifers), cycads found in tropical/temperate regions, are dioceious, individuals are either male or female, produce seeds resembling cones, distantly related to conifers
- conifer tree
What is Angiosperm? What is an example?
- produce flowers, largest and most diverse group, represent 80% of all known green plants now living, some have obvious flowers, some don’t, some have obvious flowers but bloom rarely, produce seeds
- flowers
Characteristics of roots
Can perform many tasks at the same time
Supports the shoot, absorbs water/minerals and produce plant hormones (Cytokinin’s)
Root systems need to be the right size, if it’s too small it can’t obtain the needed nutrients and water, if it’s too big it wastes resources
At the distal end (far end of root) multiple laters of rapidly dividing cells are present
Root Apical Meristem (RAM) is protected by a root cap
Layers of RAM is followed by a zone of elongation where newly formed roots elongate which pushes the root through the soil and is protected by a lubricating material produced by the root cap
Describe lateral root formation
The basal root cells (closer to the shoot) don’t elongate and aren’t pushed into the soil
Originate from internal tissues of the primary root system
Roots branch into lateral roots which also branch out further (1st order lateral, 2nd order lateral, 3rd order lateral
What are the characteristics of the taproot system?
Possess one main root
Swollen in appearance
Derived from the seedling root system
Only one root attached to the base of the stem
What are the characteristics of the fibrous root system?
Possess multiple roots
Fibrous in appearance
Multiple roots attach to the stem in various places
What are the characteristics of the adventitious root system?
Roots that form from any non-tissue roots
Form naturally on intact stems or wound induced on detached stems/leaves
Can attach plants to walls. Other plants
Help get more water and nutrients by absorbing it from the atmosphere
provide support
What are the reproductive organs found in most plants?
flowers, fruits and seeds
What causes the switch from the vegetative stage to the reproductive stage?
Changes in meristem tissues in the shoot apical bud or axillary buds
Fruits are formed before fertilization
False
Define sepal
outermost structure, green and leaf like, protect the internal part of the flower during development
Define petal
colourful, fragrant and most distinctive part of the plant which helps attract pollinators
Define stamen
produce pollen and is the male gamete, contain sperm cells
Define pistil
female gamete, innermost layer that contains structures that produce egg cells and develop into fruits
What are the four main structures found in flowers?
sepal, petal, stamen, pistil
What is an annual plant?
a plant living less than a year
Complete their entire life cycle withing a year (growing season) and then die
Ex: what, oats, peas, beans, garden flowers, weeds
What is a perennial plant?
a plant that lives longer than a year
No specific lifespan
Longevity depends on environmental conditions
Death caused by internal or environmental factors or disease
Need to be able to protect themselves for long periods of time, use their energy to make defensive compounds to ward off pests/pathogens
What can cause plant death?
Internal and external factors such as disease and environment
What is Arabidposis thaliana?
Model plant used by plant biologists
An annual plant with one of the shortest life spans known in plants (less than six weeks)
Seedlings grow for 3 weeks and then produce flowers
Within the next 3 weeks flowers are pollinated, set seed and fruit and then die
The short life span makes them a good plant for experiments
What is a biennial plant?
a plant that lives for two years but is considered a perennial
Germinate and grow vegetative for 1 year and become dormant in the winter
Then in the spring they grow for a little, flower, produce seeds and die
Ex: beets, cabbage, carrots
Define monocarpic
plants having only one reproductive cycle
ex: annuals and biennials
Define polycarpic
plants having more than one reproductive cycle
ex: perennials
What are some characteristics of herbaceous plants?
Stems and roots don’t make wood, have small, fleshy stems
Mostly annuals but some perennials (herbs, tulips )
What are some characteristics of woody plants?
Begin as herbs
At a certain stage some cells become vascular and develop cork cambium cells
Start to produce wood (xylem) phloem and cork
Allow the plant to keep growing by producing more vascular tissue
Wood comes from xylem cells
What are the parts of a dicot seed?
- seed coat, embryonic shoot, leaves, roots, and 2 cotyledons
What are the parts of a monocot seed?
Seed coat
Endosperm
Embryo
What is the epicotyl?
leaves
what is the hypocotyl?
shoots
What is the radicle?
roots
What does the seed coat do?
provide protection
What does the embryo do?
produce a new plant
what does the cotyledon/endosperm do?
provide energy
What are the characteristics of storage grain?
Crop seed can be stored for many years
They are dried not dead
Eaten for food
Can be saved until it is time to plant
Wild plant seeds can live in the soil for many years, but can be removed by predation, avoid inappropriate germination (germinating at the wrong time)
Seeds have energy for growing a plant until the plant can sustain itself
Seeds can be killed by disease or if it runs out of energy
What are the characteristics of a new plant?
Usually the product of genetic recombination (mixture of genes)
Potential to be the best or worst combination due to natures randomness
Natural selection depends on diversity
Inside the seed are all the genes to produce a new plant
What are the agents of seed dispersal?
wind, water, insects, birds, mammals, falling, bursting
what does seed dispersal depend on?
chance, the fate of the seed depends on where it lands
What is pollination? What are some of the characteristics?
A process in which pollen is transferred to female reproductive organs of seed plants enabling fertilization and reproduction through growth of pollen tube and the release of sperm
Both monocots and dicots undergo pollination
What is seed germination?
- when the plant starts to grow
What are some of the characteristics of seed germination?
Shouldn’t happen at the beginning of fall or winter
Shouldn’t happen in a poor environment (ex: lack of moisture, too hot or cold, too much water, poor nutrients)
Some plants produce many seeds due to risks
Some seeds delay germination until the right conditions are present
What is dormancy
the state in which seeds are unable to germinate, even in ideal growth conditions, prevents germination in unsuitable conditions
What are some of the characteristics of dormancy?
Seeds can endure unfavourable conditions and not all germinate at the same time, but are killed
Seed dormancy is a problem in crops when they want to plant seeds all at the same time, in order to do this you must keep the seed dry so it doesn’t germinate (if it gets wet it will germinate)
What was the oldest viable seed?
Silene Stenophylla
What is a Seed Bank? What does it do?
Stores seeds to preserve genetic diversity
Preserving the genes plant breeders need to increase yield, disease resistance, drought tolerance, nutritional quality
To avoid loss of genetic diversity in rare or endangered plants
What is the Svalbard International Seed Vault?
a vault containing all plant species from all around the world, a global backup system for the planets plant resources
What are seed strategies?
Small seeded plants (ex: orchid) produce millions of seeds provides a larger chance of dispersal
Large seeded plants (ex: coco de mer) contain enough nutrients to support the future crop
What are the origins of agriculture?
Around 10 000 years ago
Happened several times in different parts of the world
Involved different plant species
Earliest agriculture settlements found in the “fertile cresent” which is an arc like region stretching from east Mediterranean towards present day Iran
Close to water
Tigris and Euphrates regularly flooded the region
Nile River runs through part
Irrigation and agriculture developed because of the fertile soil found near the rivers
Why did nomads settle?
climate change, habitat shrinkage, reduced number of animal population, accidental concentration of edible and useful plants, realized the benefits of not having to move to get food and stuff, started to protect and tend the land
What is needed for a stable civilization?
a stable food source
What were the characteristics of the first domesticated plants?
Annuals which produce seeds in a year
Self-pollinating
Easily stored and dried
Adaptable to disturbance
Easily propagated
How were seeds planted in early agriculture?
by hand
What is domestication?
the deliberate selection of wild plants for traits that make them suitable for humans
How did domestication affect plants?
Many of these traits made them less likely to survive in the wild and became dependent on humans for continuance
When did people first start domesticating plants?
10 000 years ago between Tigris and Euphrates rivers
What plants were first domesticated in mesopotamia?
wheat, barley, lentils, peas,
What did grain storage do?
allowed for food preservation and use over the year, put seeds away for next year, protect from moisture, pests and diseases and stored food to eat when fresh food wasn’t available
what were some of the first centers of crop domestication?
Fertile Cresent-Mesopotamia
Meso-America—Inca, Mayan, Peruvian
Far East- Yellow River (China) and Indus valley (India)
Secondary Dispersal in Europe, North and South America and Australia
Which plant originated in south america and mesoamerica?
cassava
What plant originated in mesoamerica?
maize
What plant was corn derived from?
teosinte
Who domesticated wheat?
people in the middle east, came from emmer
What were the consequences of domestication?
Some weeds were co selected with crops
Seeds couldn’t be separated from crop seeds
Seeds dispersed rapidly before harvest
Difficult to remove from crop by hand
Produced many seeds
Have long dormancy periods
What influenced crop dispersal?
the columbian exchange
What are some of the characteristics of domesticated corn?
Increase of ear, seed and plant size
Cannot survive without human intervention
Needs more inputs like fertilizer
Grain size increase
Disease and insect resistant
All ears at same height, easier to harvest
only one branch compared to many
less ears of corn
weak dormancy
Where did corn originate from?
Mayan, Aztec and Inca civilizations
What are the different parts of the corns reproductive system?
Tassel, anthers, silks, ears, seeds
How is corn pollinated?
through wind pollination
What is a monoecious plant?
have male and female flowers in separate structures on the same plant
Where is pollen produced on the corn plant?
the tassels
What does outcrossing do?
allows for genetic diversity by sexual reproduction (because pollen from other cultivars pollinate the ovules)
What are landraces?
races of diverse corn that are maintained and developed by subsistence growers for their own use and trade
What are the characteristics of hybrid corn?
Two inbred lines (plants), (crossed to themselves over and over) most of the genes on the chromosomes are the same
The two lines are chosen that are complementary each has some good traits
In f1, weaker genes are masked, producing a vigorous uniform plant
F1 are all the same
Next generation, independent segregation, uniformity and vigour is reduced
Farners need to buy hybrid seeds because they are better
How is corn different than other cereal plants?
Have large plants and seeds
A single seed is planted rather than being scattered
Ears are located on the side of the stalk nit the side
Corn is grown in rows with wide spaces between
Kernels are naked and not covered in a hull
Corn is a C4 (same with sorghum and pearl-millet)
Why has corn production increased in the united states?
the use of fertilizer and pesticides, along with hybrid corn
what is polyploidy?
having an extra set of chromosomes
What are the pros of polyploidy?
Increases amount of genetic variability
hybrid vigour
gene evolution
Self vs cross fertilization
Ploidy in plants has contributed to more and larger fruiting organs = higher yields
What are the cons of polyploidy?
Predisposed to segregation errors
Extra chromosomes = need more space
Problems completing meiosis and mitosis
Gene expression is unpredictable
What are the characteristics of durum wheat?
Bigger kernels and easier to harvest
Can be spring or winter type
Wheat grows in temperate regions
Adapts well to various environments
What is durum wheat used for?
pasta and semolina
is durum wheat a dipliod or a tetraploid?
tetraploid
What are the characteristics of common wheat?
Spring or winter type
Grows in temperate regions
Central and southern prairies
Canada Top producer of hard red spring wheat
Can be low or high protein
What is low protein wheat used for?
(soft white), used for noodles, cookies, pastries, high yielding
What is high protein wheat used for?
(hard red) used for bread or blending, lower yielding
What else can common wheat be used for?
High protein and gluten, great milling and baking quality, minimal protein loss during milling, can be blended with other flour
Can be used as starch, bulgur wheat, used as animal feed if it doesn’t meet market demand
Lower quality wheat has low protein and used for bioethanol production and can be used for brewing purposes
What are the characteristics of barley?
Spring or winter
Grown in temperate region
South and southern prairies
2 row or 6 row barley types
2nd most important grain grown in Canada
Is common wheat a tetraploid or a hexaploid?
hexaploid
Is barley a hexaploid or a diploid
diploid
2 row barley has less starch
false, 6 row barley has less starch
How much of barley grown is used for animal feed?
60-70 percent
What is the malting process?
soak, germinate (starts sprouting, produces amylases which breaks down the long sugars and makes them into simple sugars which makes is sweeter), kiln which brings moisture to 4 percent
What is 2 row barley used for?
distilleries/breweries
What is 6 row barley used for?
animal food
How much of the worlds barley comes from Europe?
75%
Are legumes dicots or monocots?
dicots
When and where was they soybean domesticated?
around 7000 BCE in China
What plant did domesticated soy come from?
Glycine soja
What are the characteristics of glycine soja?
Prostrate (grows along the ground)
Self-fertilizing flowers
Pods shatter easily
1-4 seeds per pod
Seed dormancy
Small black seeds
Indeterminate growth (flowers the year after)
How did soy change after domestication?
Flowering can now happen any time after vegetative growth
Indeterminate type=continuously grow, after vegetative stage they go to reproductive stage, produce flowers, then pods that mature at the same time
Self-pollinating crop
Less hard seed coat and hard seed
Which countries produce the most soy?
Brazil and the US
Where did peanuts originate from?
south and central america
What are the characteristics of the peanut?
After fertilization, peg develops into the soil and develop into a fruit
Develop underground
Which country produces the most peanuts?
China
When and where was the field pea domesticated?
Domesticated in the fertile cresent 10 000 years ago
what are the characteristics of peas?
Rich source of protein, essential amino acids, carbs, iron, calcium and potassium
Which country produces the most peas?
Canada, followed by Russia and China
Where was the chickpea domesticated?
Southwest Asia and Mediterranean, Ethiopia is a secondary center of orgin
What was the first legume to be domesticated in the old world?
chickpeas
Which legumes are known as pulses?
beans, lentils and dry peas
Which legumes are known as oilseed legumes?
soybeans and peanuts
What are the two main groups of chickpeas called?
Desi and Kabuli
Which country is the worlds top chickpea producer?
India, followed by pakistan
Where were lentils domesticated?
East mediterreanean
What is the oldest pulse crop known to man?
lentils
Who produces 45% of the worlds lentils?
Canada
Where were beans domesticated?
Central America
What are the two major gene pools in beans?
Central America for small to medium seeded cultivars
Andes for large seeded cultivars
What are the two types of beans plants?
bush and climbing
Which country produces the most beans?
India
Where are pulses and soybeans grown in Canada?
Alberta, Sask, Manitoba, Ontario and Quebec
