Exam 1 Flashcards
a way to answer questions using empirical research and data-based conclusions
Scientific Method
A comprehensive set of ideas
Theory
a specific prediction that can be tested
Hypothesis
based on observation, experience, or experiment, not theoretical
Empirical
repeating a study, usually using different participants, perhaps of another age, SES, or culture
Replication
Why is Replication so important
We need answers that are beyond the personal, valid answers that may/may not confirm our hunches and assumptions and replication either exactly or with modifications does that
Why is Replication so important
in development, this refers to the traits, capacities, and limitations that each individual inherits genetically from his or her parents at the moment of conceptions
Nature
in development, nurture includes all the environmental influences that affect the individual after conception
-this includes everything from the mother’s nutrition while pregnant to the cultural influences in the nation
Nurture
-essentialism (nature) vs. constructivism (nurture)
-both genes and the environment affect every characteristic
-nature always affects nurture and nurture always affects nature
-no genetic or environmental factor acts in isolation
Nature vs. Nurture
Why is the nature and nurture debate important to developmental psychology?
-A significant issue in developmental psychology has been the relationship between the innateness of an attribute (whether it is part of our nature) and the environmental effects on that attribute (whether it is derived from or influenced by our environment, or nurture).
-Today, developmental psychologists rarely take polarized positions with regard to most aspects of development; instead, they investigate the relationship between innate and environmental influences.
•-he biopsychosocial model states that biological, psychological, and social factors all play a significant role in human development.
-Environmental inputs can affect the expression of genes, a relationship called gene-environment interaction. An individual’s genes and their environment work together, communicating back and forth to create traits
Why is the nature and nurture debate important to developmental psychology?
-certain versions of particular genes may make it more likely for people to develop specific problems or strengths
-Genes act in opposite ways depending on the environment
-inherited risk influences later behavior, but the impact varies from one place, age, and background of participants to another
Differential Sensitivity
a time when a particular type of developmental growth (in body or behavior) must happen for normal development to occur
Critical Period
a time when a certain type of development is most likely, although it may still happen later with more difficulty
-BEST TIME
-Ex: early childhood is considered a sensitive period for language learning
Sensitive
-the idea that abilities, personality, and other human characteristics can change over time
-is particularly evident during childhood, but even older adults are not always “set in their ways”
-denotes two complementary aspects of development
-human traits can be molded
-genes and other biological influences
-resilience (why people can experience things and bounce back)
-provides hope (changes are possible) and realism (each person must build on what has come before)
Plasticity
-the mistaken belief that a deviation from some norm is necessarily inferior to behavior or characteristics that meet the standard
-the human tendency to notice differences and then jump to the conclusion that something important is lacking
-in a flash, every difference is perceived as a deficit
-by studying all kinds of people, of every age and background, developmentalists recognize and try to avoid this danger
Different = Deficit Error
a system of shared beliefs, norms, behaviors, and expectations that persist over time and prescribe social behavior and assumptions
Culture
people whose ancestors were born in the same region and who often share a language, culture and religion
Ethnic Group
-a group of people who are regarded by themselves or by others as distinct from other groups on the basis of physical appearance, typically skin color
-social scientists think race is a misleading concept as biological difference are not significant by outward appearances
Race
-an idea that is built on shared perceptions, not on objective reality
-many age-related terms (childhood, adolescence, senior citizen) are this, connected to biological traits but strongly influenced by social assumptions
Social Construct
-a person’s position in society as determined by income, occupation, education, and place of residence
- sometimes called social class
-reflects family income, but not income alone
-affects almost every aspect of development, even life itself
Socioeconomic Status SES
-a view of human development as an ongoing, ever-changing interaction between the physical, cognitive and psychosocial influences
-crucial understanding is that development is never static, but it is always affect by, and affects, many systems of development
-childhood, adolescence, maturity, and old age
Dynamic Systems
-a perspective on human development that considers all the influences from the various contexts of development
-renamed his theory bioecological
-described three nested levels that affect each person: microsystems (elements of immediate surroundings, such as the family system), exosystems (local institutions such as school and workplace), and macrosystems (the larger contexts, including cultural values, economic policies, and political processes)
-to reflect dynamic interaction between these three systems he named a fourth system, mesosytem, which encompasses the connections between the other systems
Brofenbrenner’s ecological-systems approach
-people born within the same historical period who therefore move through life together, experiencing the same events, new technologies, and cultural shifts at the same ages
-Ex: the effect of the internet varies depending on what cohort a person belongs to
-70 year old not knowing how to use an iphone
Cohort Effect
in an experiment, the variable that is introduced to see what effect it has on the dependent variable
Independent Variable
in an experiment, the variable that may change as a result of whatever new condition or situation the experimenter adds
-depends on independent variable
Dependent Variable
Correlation does not prove that one variable causes the other: the relationship of variables may be opposite to the one expected, or both may be the result of a third variable
Why doesn’t correlation=causation?
The third variable is simply when Z looks like it is responsible for the relation between X and Y
What is meant by the 3rd variable?
a research design that compares groups of people who differ in age but are similar in other important characteristics
cross-sectional research
a research design in which the same individuals are followed over time, as their development is repeatedly assessed
longitudinal research
a research design in which researchers first study several groups of people of different ages and then follow those groups over the years
cohort-sequential design
-theories provide a framework for organizing and understanding thousands of observations and daily behaviors that occur in every aspect of development
-theories are not facts, but they allow us to question norms, suggest hypotheses, and provide guidance.
-theories are practical
-thy frame and organize our millions of experiences
- a theory is not true or false, or good nor bad/ a theory is provocative and useful, leading to exploration
-theories deepen thought and lead to new perspectives or interpretations
Why are theories so important?
all cultural patterns and beliefs are social constructions, not natural laws
-they find customs to be powerful, shaping the development of every person, and they also find that some assumptions need to shift to allow healthier development of all people
-this is stressed when Vygotsky argued that mentally and physically disabled children should be educated
Why is it important to consider culture in understanding development?
-many human impulses, needs, and behaviors evolved to help humans survive and thrive over millions of years, with children particularly protected
-humans need to acknowledge the power of emotions
-every species has two long-standing, biologically based drives: survival and reproduction
Evolutionary Theory
-the process by which living creatures (including people) adjust to their environment
-genes that enhance survival and reproductive abilities are selected, over the generations, to become more prevalent
-the process by which living creatures (including people) adjust to their environment
-genes that enhance survival and reproductive abilities are selected, over the generations, to become more prevalent
Selective Adaptation
the approach taken by most developmentalists, in which they apply aspects of each of the various theories of development rather than adhering exclusively to one theory
the approach taken by most developmentalists, in which they apply aspects of each of the various theories of development rather than adhering exclusively to one theory
Eclectic Perspective
the chemical composition of the molecules that contain the genes, which are chemical instructions for cells to manufacture various proteins
DNA
one of the 46 molecules of DNA (in 23 pairs) that virtually each cell of the human body contains and that, together, contain all the genes
Chromosome
-a small section of a chromosome
-the basic unit for the transmission of heredity
-consists of a string of chemicals that provide instructions for the cell to manufacture certain proteins
Gene
-a variation that makes a gene different in some way from other genes for the same characteristics
Allele
-reproductive cell
-a sperm or ovum that can produce a new individual it if combines with a gamete from the other sex to make a zygote
Gamete
-referring to two genes of one pair that are exactly the same in every letter of their code
Homozygous
-referring to two genes of one pair that differ in some way
Heterozygous
-twins who originate from one zygote that splits apart very early in development
-identical twins
monozygotic twins
-twins who are formed when two separate ova are fertilized by two separate sperm at roughly the same time
-fraternal twins
dizygotic twins
-referring to a trait that is influenced by many genes
polygenic
referring to a trait that is affected by many factors, both genetic and environmental, that enhance, halt, shape, or alter the expression of genes, resulting in a phenotype that may differ markedly from the genotype
Multifactorial
-referring to environmental factors that affect genes and genetic expression-enhancing, halting, shaping, or altering the expression of genes and resulting in a phenotype that may differ markedly from the genotype
-development is an epigenetic process that entails cascades of interactions across multiple levels of causation, from genes to environment
Epigenetic
a statistic that indicates what percentage of the variation in a particular trait within a particular population, in a popular context and era, can be traced to genes
Heritability
- Germinal (0-2 weeks)-cell differentiation (one cell to many)
- Embryonic (2-8 weeks)-body structure
- Fetal 9-36/38 weeks)-grows and further develops
Prenatal Development
-the first two weeks of prenatal development after conception, characterized by rapid cell division and the beginning of cell differentiation
-the once celled zygote travels tow fallopian tube to the uterus and begins to duplicate and multiply
-at the 8 cell stage: differentiation begins and the 100 cells/ blastocyst take on distinct characteristics and go toward particular locations
-inner membrane will become embryo
-outer membrane will become placenta
germinal period
-the process, beginning about 10 days after conception, in which the developing organism burrows into the placenta that lines the uterus, where it can be nourished and protected as it continues to develop
Implantation
-the stage of prenatal development from approximately the third through eighth week after conception, during which the basic forms of all body structures, including internal organs, develop
-from implantation, the major organs develop, less than 2 inches long at this stage
-neural tube begins to form-primitive streak and this becomes the brain and nervous system
-development is cephalocaudal (head down to the feet) and proximodistal (heart out to the fingertips)
-pregnant women need to be getting folic acid for this stage
Embryonic Period
-the stage of prenatal development from the ninth week after conception until birth, during which the fetus gains about 7 pounds and organs become more mature, gradually able to function on their own
-maturation of neurons (28 weeks)
-genitals form based on sex hormones-affect brain and organization
-heartbeat is detectable via stethoscope
-at 6 months the fetus can hear and react to light
-earliest the fetus can survive on its own (22 weeks)
-by 28 weeks-50% chance of survival
-fetus gains 5 pounds in the last 28 weeks
Fetal Period
The name for a developing human organism from the start of the ninth week after conception until birth
Fetus
the age (about 22 weeks after conception) at which a fetus might survive outside the mother’s uterus if specialized medical care is available
Age of Viability
-a quick assessment of a newborn’s health
-the baby’s color, heart rate, reflexes, muscle tone, and respiratory effort are given a score of 0, 1, or 2 twice-at one minute and five minutes after birth-and each time the total of all five scores is compared with the max score of 10 (rarely attained)
-most newborns score at least 7 out of 10 on the Apgar scale and thrive without medical assistance
Apgar Scale
a surgical birth, in which incisions through the mother’s abdomen an uterus allow the fetus to be removed quickly, instead of being delivered through the vagina
C-Section
-a woman who helps with the birth process
-in Latin America, this was the only professional who attended childbirth
-today, they are more likely to arrive at the woman’s home during early labor and later work alongside hospital’s staff
Doula
-agents and conditions, including viruses, drugs and chemicals, that can impair prenatal development and result in birth defects or even death
Teratogens
agents and conditions that can harm the prenatal brain, impairing the future child’s intellectual and emotional functioning
Behavioral Teratogens
in prenatal development, when a teratogen is relatively harmless in small doses but becomes harmful once exposure reaches a certain level (threshold)
Threshold Effects
a cluster of birth defects, including abnormal facial characteristics, slow physical growth, and retarded mental development, that may occur in the fetus of a woman who drinks alcohol while pregnant
fetal alcohol syndrome
a body weight at birth of less than 5 1/2 pounds
Low Birthweight
a body weight at birth of less than 3 pounds, 5 ounces
Very Low Birthweight
a body weight at birth of less than 2 pounds, 3 ounces
Extremely Low Birthweight
a birth that occurs 3 or more weeks before the full 38 weeks of the typical pregnancy-that is, at 35 or fewer weeks after conception
Preterm
a lack of oxygen, that, if prolonged, can cause brain damage or death
Anoxia
an unlearned, involuntary action or movement in response to a stimulus
-occurs within conscious thought
Reflex
symptoms of pregnancy and birth experienced by fathers
Couvade
the strong, loving connection that forms as parents hold, examine and feed their newborn
Parent-Infant Bond
a form of newborn care in which mothers (and sometimes fathers) rest their babies on their naked chests, like kangaroo mothers that carry their immature newborns in a pouch on their abdomen
Kangaroo Care
One age group is followed over time
Longitudinal Study
Parents provide environment that enhances genetic material.
Passive
Children’s own characteristics will elicit or evoke certain types of environment
Evocative
Kids seek out environments that fit genetic tendencies.
Active
Brain is not properly developed
Anencephaly
Combination of teratogens. Ex: alcohol, poor nutrition, smoking
Interaction Effect
When nutrition is inadequate, brain still gets what it needs.
Head-Sparing
Rapid increase in neural connections. Proliferation is followed by pruning.
Exuberant synaptogenesis
Pathways in the brain that aren’t used or are redundant are eliminated.
Pruning
Requires common experiences in order to develop. Ex: language, food, etc.
Experience-expectant (brain development)
Depends on particular and variable events, which uniquely shape individual’s brain. Ex: sp. language (Chinese), smell of mother.
Experience-dependent (brain development)
As infants get used to a stimulation, they get tired of it
Habituation
Head to tail development
Cephalocaudal
Near to far. Ex: arms wave before fingers wiggle
Proximodistal
Things exist when you can’t see them. Babies start to develop this around 8-12 months.
Object permanence
