exam 1 Flashcards
p< 0.05 means what in terms of statistical significance ?
statistically significant if less then
when someone states that something is statistically significant what does that mean
is it related by chance or due to something else
hypothesis
a proposed explanation
what is a quantitative study
researchers move from the beginning of a study (posing a question) to the end point (obtaining an answer) in a reasonably linear sequence of steps that is broadly similar across studies.
what is open coding
generating categories
the capture of what is going on in the data such as actual words.
what is substantive codes
in which the empirical substance of the topic is conceptualized
what are theoretical codes
in which higher-order relationships are conceptualized
what is selective coding
After open coding, only data relating to a core category are coded
what is axial coding
where categories are linked with subcategories and integrated
what does substantive coding involve
open coding
what is credibility defined as
which refers to confidence in the truth value of the findings, is sometimes said to be the qualitative equivalent of internal validity.
what assumption does qualitative data make
multiple realities exist
what is investigator triangulation
Strategies for enhancing quality during the coding and analysis of qualitative data
what is data triangulation
using multiple data sources to validate conclusions
what is method triangulation
using multiple methods, such as interviews and observations, to collect data about the same phenomenon
what is theory triangulation
Strategies for enhancing quality during the coding and analysis of qualitative data → (use of competing theories or hypotheses in the analysis and interpretation of data)
what is meant by the term triangulation
is the process of using multiple referents to draw conclusions about what constitutes the truth
what is reflexivity
qualitative researchers need to devote time and energy to analyzing and documenting their presuppositions, biases, and ongoing emotions
In which pair of variables is there most likely to be a relationship that could be described as causal?
degree and physical activity and heart rate
how can many qualitative studies be described
inductive
timing with Data Analysis in a Qualitative research is:
concurrent
researchers with Data Analysis in a Qualitative research is:
one versus multiple (a team)
Transcription with Data Analysis in a Qualitative research is:
one, professional, verbatim
what is meant by reductionist in terms of qualitative data
masses of data into smaller, manageable sections
what is meant by constructionist in terms of qualitative data
segments are put together into meaningful conceptual patterns
what is meant by reduction first
coding and pattern finding
what is meant by data integration in terms of qualitative research
higher order codes, grouping codes into categories, identifying relationships
what is included in grounded theory approaches
Constant comparative method Coding Core category Basic social process Theoretical coding
with ethnographic analysis what four types are included
Domain analysis = units of cultural knowledge
Taxonomic analysis = organization of domains
Componential analysis = assess for similarities
Theme analysis = discovery of cultural meaning
what is done in domain analysis
units of cultural knowledge
domains are the units of cultural knowledge are the broad categories that encompass smaller ones = looking for relational patterns
what is done in taxonomic analysis
(second level of data analysis) ethnographers decide how many domains the analysis will encompass. Will only one or two domains be analyzed in depth, or will several domains be studied less intensively?
what is taxonomy
a system of classifying and organizing terms—is developed to illustrate the internal organization of a domain and the relationship among the subcategories of the domain.
what is a compensational analysis
looking for similarities
the ethnographer analyzes data for similarities and differences among cultural terms in a domain.
what is a theme analysis
cultural themes are uncovered.
what is done in a phenomenology analysis
Essential meanings of experiences
Descriptive and interpretive
Themes = can be overarching
Formal guidelines for methodology
what is content analysis
counting words or phrases, meaning units “words, sentences, or paragraphs containing aspects related to each other through their content and context”
validity means and includes:
- Prolonged engagement
- Persistent observation
- Triangulation
- Peer debriefing
- Member checking
- Searching for disconfirming evidence
what is included to make a study trustworthy
credibility, dependability, confirmability, transferability, and authenticity.
dependability is also known as
reliability
what does dependability mean:
refers to the stability of data over time and conditions and is somewhat analogous to reliability in quantitative studies.
confirmability means
refers to the objectivity or neutrality of the data
transferability means:
analog of external validity, is the extent to which findings from the data can be transferred to other settings or groups.
authenticity means:
refers to the extent to which researchers fairly and faithfully show a range of different realities and convey the feeling tone of lives as they are lived.
Have you gained new knowledge and the processes
Feeling the tone = flat, liable, etc
Develop a heightened sensitivity to the issues or individuals being depicted
prolonged engagement means:
Strategies for enhancing the quality of qualitative data as they are being collected
what is the goal of persistent observation:
which is aimed at achieving adequate depth; reflexivity; comprehensive and vivid recording of information (including maintenance of an audit trail of key decisions and products); triangulation, and member checking.
what is member checking?
involve asking participants to review and react to study data and emerging themes and conceptualizations. A procedure called Synthesized Member Checking (SMC) is an effort to make member checking more systematic. Member checking is among the most controversial methods of addressing quality issues in qualitative inquiry.
what does member checking help to accomplish
credibility
what does grounded theory work to accomplish
trying to develop a theory
what two things does grounded theory include
core variable
constant comparison
what is a core variable
. One type of core variable is called a basic social process (BSP). The goal of grounded theory is to discover this main concern and the basic social process that explains how people continually resolve it.
what is constant comparison
A procedure called constant comparison is used to develop and refine theoretically relevant categories.
Categories elicited from the data are constantly compared with data obtained earlier so that commonalities and variations can be determined
ethnography looks at:
- Primarily observation and interviews, plus artifacts, documents, photos
- Cultural systems
ethnography takes place over:
long periods of time
phenomenology includes:
In depth interviews, sometimes diaries or other written material
phenomenology usually has ____ amount of participants:
10-15
ethnography is looking at what types of perspectives:
thinking insider versus outsider / observer
emic / etic
emic means:
insider , emulate = speak the language of the people on the inside
is the way members of a culture envision their world—the insiders’ view. The emic is the local language, concepts, or means of expression used by members of the group under study to characterize their experiences.
etic means:
outside
more removed
biography uses what type of person during a study
key informant
a key informant means:
usually someone in the setting, insider with an emic perspective
informants to help them understand and interpret the activities being observed.
culture includes:
Cultural behavior = what members do
Cultural artifacts = what people make and use
Cultural speech = what people say
ethnography comes from what field of study:
anthropology
what is phenomenology:
One of the most common you see in nursing
Comes from psychology
What is the essence of this phenomenon as experienced by these people and what does it mean → looking for experience
what is a lived experience:
trying to understand the perspective of someone’s experiences, choices, lifestyle and how it is influenced by their environment
what are the two fields of study included in phenomenology :
descriptive and interpretative
descriptive field of study for phenology includes:
descriptions of the human experience, what do we know as humans → description of the study
interpretative field of study for phenology means:
understanding the human experience → interpreting what you are getting from the data
what does barking mean and what field of study do you see it included in:
phenomenology
identifying any preconceived notions about the phenomenon you are studying and setting them aside
Why do we do qualitative research in nursing:
More narratives
Due to a lack of literature out there
Good if you are not a part of the population and not familiar with the populations
what is an emergent design
when compared to quantitative research you can adapt the study, adaptation throughout the study as it continue
Shift the participants you are looking at as the research continues on
sampling in qualitative studies:
Call them participants, usually less than 50 (small group!)
Strategy: relevant to tradition, rich information, transferable, believable, ethical, feasible
convince sampling includes:
Sampling in qualitative inquiry may begin with a convenience (or volunteer) sample. Snowball (chain) sampling may also be used.
Easy access to
VOLUNTEERS
purposive sampling includes:
select data sources that enhance information richness. Various purposive sampling strategies have been used by qualitative researchers and can be loosely categorized as (1) sampling for representativeness or comparative value; (2) sampling special or unique cases; or (3) sampling sequentially.
Access to but also trying to find them for a certain resean
theoretical sampling includes:
(selecting cases based on their contribution to important constructs)
Looking at data and information and then use the information to continue to get information or new participants
Similar to purposive sampling, but more grounded in theory
Offering interrelationships
snowball sampling is also know as
chain sampling
data saturation means:
sampling to the point at which no new information is obtained and redundancy is achieved. Factors affecting sample size include data quality, researcher skills and experience, and scope and sensitivity of the problem.
two ways to collect data (qualitative)
interviews and observation
interviews can be:
Unstructured interviews = conversational and are the mode of choice when researchers do not have a clear idea of what it is they do not know.
Semi structured interviews = researchers prepare a written topic guide, which is a list of areas or questions to be covered with each participant.
unstructured interviews means:
conversational and are the mode of choice when researchers do not have a clear idea of what it is they do not know.
structured interviews mean:
researchers prepare a written topic guide, which is a list of areas or questions to be covered with each participant.
what is included in a focus group:
small group of individuals giving feedback on a certain topic
a group of people (usually five or more) is assembled for a discussion, although some focus group discussions are conducted online. The interviewer (or moderator) guides the discussion according to a written set of questions or topics to be covered, as in a semi structured interview.
what are critical incidents and how are the reported
self reporting technique → a method of gathering in-depth information about specific incidents experienced by participants; and
what are photo elicitations
involves an interview stimulated and guided by photographic images.
what is participant observation
Ethnographers (and other qualitative researchers) also collect unstructured observational data, often through participant observation. Participant observers obtain information about the dynamics of social groups or cultures within members’ own frame of reference.
Roles of the observers: participant immersed in the environment
In which pair of variables is there most likely to be a relationship that could be described as causal?
a. coping style and stress
b. health beliefs and age
c. postpartum depression and time in labor
d. degree of physical activity and heart rate
D
what is is the overall plan for answering a quantitative study’s research question
research design
concepts are the building blocks of _____
theories
theories are _____ of some aspect of the world
systemic explanations
in qualitative studies concepts are called ______
variables
can a re variable take on different values?
yes!
the dependent variable is also known as what?
outcome
the O in pico
the independent variable is known as?
the presumed cause of, antecedent to, or influence on
in PICO is known as I or C
a conceptual definition versus a operational definition:
a conceptual definition = describes the abstract or theoretical meaning of a concept being studied.
an operation definition = how the variable will be measured
what is a bond between two variables?
a relationship
a casual relationship is also know as:
cause and effect
what is different about an associative relationship
functional and the variables are related but not in the same casual way
in quantitative studies, what is an experimental design
researchers introduce variables or factors
what can a non experimental design for quantitative research also be known as:
observational
what are the three disciplines that qualitative research stems from:
grounded theory, ethnography, phenomenology
what is the definition of phenomenology
focuses on the lived experiences of humans and is an approach to learning what the life experiences of people are like and what they mean.
what is ethnography looking at :
meaning in cultures
does qualitative research progress in a linear fashion?
YES
what are the 5 phases in a quantitative study ?
- conceptual phase
- planning phase
- empirical phase
- analytic phase
- dissemination phase
what is an example of a construct in nursing research
uncertainty of illness
what is meant by statistically significant tests?
are ones that have a high probability of being “real.”
what must be included in a research question
a modulator variable
what does a modulator variable do:
affects the strength or direction of a relationship between the independent and dependent variables
what does a complex hypothesis do?
predicts the relationship between two or more independent and dependent variables
what is a null hypothesis
no significant difference between specified populations, any observed difference being due to sampling or experimental error.
what is he researchers expectations or predictions about relationships among study variables
hypothesis
a directional hypothesis is:
is a prediction made by a researcher regarding a positive or negative change, relationship, or difference between two variables of a population
presumed cause =
independent variable
nondirectional hypothesis
anticipated existence of relationships but not their direction
