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PS1509 Aberdeen > Evolutionary Psychology > Flashcards

Evolutionary Psychology Flashcards

1
Q

4 types of evidence for evolution.

A

Fossils, shared traits, vestigial traits, observed changes.

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2
Q

Definition of evolution.

A

Heritable changes in a population over time.

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3
Q

Modern definition of evolution.

A

The change in gene frequencies in a population over time.

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4
Q

Misconceptions of evolution.

A

Evolution is progressive, has a purpose, is the same as natural selection, is only a theory.

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5
Q

Gene fitness.

A

Number of genes passed on to the next generation.

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6
Q

Direct fitness.

A

Passing genes on through own offspring. (1/2 copy)

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7
Q

Indirect fitness.

A

Passing genes on through relatives’ offspring. (1/4 copy)

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8
Q

Inclusive fitness.

A

Direct + indirect fitness.

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9
Q

What does adaptation favour?

A

Traits that maximise inclusive fitness.

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10
Q

Are all biological traits adaptive?

A

No.

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11
Q

Name an evolutionary by-product.

A

The male nipple.

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12
Q

Two kinds of sexual selection.

A

Intra- and inter-sex selection.

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13
Q

Inter-sex selection.

A

Any trait (structure or behaviour) that improves chances of reproduction between sexes. Arbitrary, whim of female.

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14
Q

Intra-sex selection.

A

Any trait that improves chances of winning from other males in competing for reproduction. Weapons, size, strategy, sperm-competition.

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15
Q

Define intelligence.

A

A mental capacity to solve problems, reason, understand complex ideas, take various perspectives and learn.

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16
Q

3 measures of intelligence.

A

Brain size, intelligent behaviour, brain-to-bodyweight.

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17
Q

Encephalisation quotient.

A

Real brain vs. expected brain weight for an animal that size.

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18
Q

Chihuahua fallacy.

A

Chihuahuas have very large brains for their body size but aren’t smart as they were bred to have smaller bodies.

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19
Q

Problems with having a large brain.

A

Energy hogs, evolutionary compromise (smaller gut), born premature.

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20
Q

4 hypotheses for the reason why we evolved to be more intelligent.

A

Environmental, tool use, social brain, sexual selection.

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21
Q

Environmental: Foraging hypothesis.

A

In order to gather higher quality food we needed cognitive and navigation skills, therefore more intelligence. Evidence: Howler & Spider monkeys.

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22
Q

Tool use hypothesis.

A

Humans uniquely manufacture and use complex tools, therefore a correlation between brain size and tool use.

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23
Q

Social brain hypothesis.

A

Intelligence needed to: be in large social groups, manipulate and avoid being manipulated. Large groups have more advantages than disadvantages. Language evolved from here when large groups needed to communicate effectively.

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24
Q

Advantages of being in large groups.

A

Defence against predators, Find and defend food resources, Protection against same-species violence.

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25
Q

Sexual selection hypothesis.

A

Intelligence is a trait preferred by women. To produce and understand intelligence, both males and females had to develop it.

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26
Q

Problem for all hypotheses involving intelligence.

A

Causal direction: did these factors lead to large brains, or did large brain allow these factors to evolve?

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27
Q

Definition of aggression.

A

Any physical violence, threatened or real: a behaviour, not an emotion.

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28
Q

Causes of aggression.

A
  • Biological: hunger, defence, status.
  • Cultural: societies, political & economic systems
  • Ideology, religion, law
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29
Q

How do we study biological causes of aggression?

A

We study it in primates.

30
Q

When does an organism favour aggression?

A

When the benefits are higher than the costs.

31
Q

Adaptive strategies using aggression.

A

Female philopatry, female transfer, taking over resources.

32
Q

Chimpanzee ‘lethal raid’

A

Silent invasion, low-cost attack. (humans are not the only ones to kill in groups)

33
Q

Why within-group aggression?

A

Males fighting for food and mates: status

34
Q

Why aggression as a strategy?

A

It improves reproductive success in many species.

The kind and amount of aggression are fine-tuned to maximise benefits and reduce costs.

35
Q

Environment of Evolutionary Adaptedness

A

The environment to which a species is adapted.

36
Q

What did all politically independent pre-industrial societies have in common?

A

They all had warfare. There were no peaceful groups.

37
Q

Yanomamo tribe in the Amazon (similar to chimpanzee strategies), Unokai

A

Engaged in lethal raids, killed other males in conflict and carried off any women they could. Unokai is a privileged male who has killed another male. They do not have within-group conflict.

38
Q

Yanomamo causes for fighting.

A

Insult, honour, revenge, infidelity or suspicion of infidelity.

39
Q

Lethal raiding in modern society?

A

Territorial expansion of nation states, gang wars, ideology wars, family feuds.

40
Q

Cooperation.

A

Behaviour that results in the benefit to another party.

41
Q

Mutualism.

A

Cooperation that has immediate benefits to all cooperating parties.
Non-zero sum: no losers.
Zero sum: winners and losers (allies v. victims).
By-product: taking advantage of other’s selfish-behaviour.

42
Q

Altruism.

A

Cooperation that has immediate benefit only to the receiver. Usually at some cost to giver.

43
Q

Kin-selection.

A

Maximise inclusive fitness, organisms help each other if related. Requires kin recognition.

44
Q

Hamilton’s rule.

A 
rB > C
B = Benefit to other (beneficiary)
C = Cost to yourself (actor)
r = relatedness between self and other
self-child: 0,5
self-parent: 0,5
self-niece: 0,25
45
Q

Reciprocal altruism. + 7 cognitive requirements

A

I’ll help you now, you’ll help me later. Requirements are individual recognition, memory for past interactions, quantification of costs and benefits, and time assessment, recognise and punish cheaters, inhibit desires/impulses, recognise intentions and goals.

46
Q

Cheater detection.

A

Wason card selection task.

47
Q

Costs of sex:

A

Time, Energy, Vulnerability to predators competitors, Proximity: aggression, Disease transmission, only transmits half your genes.

48
Q

Why sex?

A

Not clear: does introduce variability, better ability to overcome diseases, DNA repair during meiosis

49
Q

The purpose of sex?

A

Traditional view: for reproduction only. Counter examples: infertile heterosexual behaviour. Observed in over 300 species. Autosexual: more in captivity; many primates.

50
Q

Identifying genders?

A

Not by: external difference, pregnancy, taking care of offspring, genitals. But, by gametes: egg is female, sperm is male.

51
Q

Characteristics of an egg:

A

All necessary biochemical machinery, large, most with food, most with productive shell, expensive, few produced.

52
Q

Characteristics of a sperm:

A

Naked DNA + motor, small, no food, no protection, cheap, lots produced.

53
Q

The gender that invests the most…

A

…will be the choosy one. In most cases, females.

54
Q

Who chooses sexual selection?

A

Females choose, males compete.

55
Q

Who provide DNA?

A

Males. They invest little, so can fertilise several females, some can go without mates, therefore intense male-male competition.

56
Q

Does female reproduction depend on he number of male mates?

A

No.

57
Q

What is the minimal investment scenario for females?

A

Large egg, 9 months of pregnancy, 15 kg nutrients, 2-4 years of nursing. + typical: several years of teaching.

58
Q

What is the minimal investment scenario for men?

A

Small numerous sperm, 5 minutes of copulation. + typical: bring food, protection, stick around for years, teach.

59
Q

Signs of sexual selection by females?

A

Sexual dimorphism, sperm competition, difference in sexual strategies between genders.

60
Q

Sexual dimorphism:

A

Difference in male-female body size. It pays for males to be big for competition. 15-20% dimorphism in size since 2 million years ago.

61
Q

Sperm competition:

A

Chimpanzees have promiscuous females which create strong sperm competition: high quality and volume. In humans, sperm quality is low as shown by small testicles.

62
Q

Sexual selection in humans?

A

Potentially. Intelligence and language, penis size in males.

63
Q

What strategy is smart for each gender?

A

Males: improve chances of conception, a large number of partners, any willing female, signs of fertility: young Females: look for good genes: Features indicating high testosterone, tall, muscular, strong chin, prominent brows, symmetrical, etc.

64
Q

Women prefer men who are:

A

Tall, aggressive

65
Q

Men prefer women who are:

A

Not prudish, young and good looking, do not ask for a commitment.

66
Q

Increasing solicitation for sex: differences between men and women?

A

Women’s responses reduced with increasing solicitation, men’s increased.

67
Q

In long-term mating:

A

Males should seek paternity confirmation. (not complete)

68
Q

A sense of fairness comes from:

A

Religion, society/culture, evolved trait?

69
Q

Fairness theory?

A

Fairness is an outgrowth of reciprocal altruism.

70
Q

Requirements of fairness theory:

A

Being able to recognise and punish cheaters, cost-benefit analysis, reputation, emotions; liking, anger, gratitude, etc.

71
Q

Why do we use evolutionary theory for morality?

A

Not to help solve moral choices but to help understands why we make these choices.

PS1509 Aberdeen (4 decks)

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