Evolutionary Explanations

Question 1

What can happen to genes? What does this affect?

Answer 1

Genes mutate and these mutations affect an individual’s behaviour.

Question 2

Why may happen if a gene mutation is beneficial? What is this then considered?

Answer 2

The mutations may help an individual survive and can be passed onto future generations.

These are then considered adaptive.

Question 3

Why is evolution an adaptive explanation for aggression?

Answer 3

Aggression helps an individual to compete for limited resources and so survive.

This increases their chance of meeting and impressing a potential mate to reproduce - aiding them in protecting their territory and family/offspring.​

Question 4

What does the evolutionary explanation suggest about aggression?

Answer 4

Suggests aggression serves an important function in terms of individual survival and reproductive success.

Question 5

What is the general premise of the evolutionary explanation of aggression?

Answer 5

About the acquirement and maintenance of resources.

Question 6

What purpose does aggression serve in humans in today’s society?

Answer 6

Resources aren’t gained through aggressive.

So instead seeking finance and high salary jobs will benefit more of a purpose.

Sanctioned aggression in sports: aggression more competitive e.g. boxing, mma.

Question 7

Outline the research completed by Sadalla in 1987.

(Supports the evolutionary explanation for aggression)

Answer 7

Supports the evolutionary explanation for aggression.

This is because they stated that aggressive behaviour increased the attractiveness of males, but had no effect on the attractiveness of females.

This suggests that aggressive acts promote survival through attraction, and thus the passing of genes.
This also highlights the fact that there are gender differences within human aggression.

Question 8

Outline the research completed by Snyder in 2008.

(Supports the evolutionary explanation for aggression)

Answer 8

Supports the evolutionary explanation for aggression.

This is because women only found aggressive males attractive (high dominance) in the context of male-male competitions.

This suggests that aggressive acts promote survival through displayed ability of protection, and thus the passing of genes.

However, females reported that other aggressive contexts were not attractive, as were seen to threaten then as romantic partners.

Question 9

What is sexual jealousy?

Answer 9

A major motivator of aggressive behaviour in males which can be used as an evolutionary explanation of aggression.​

Question 10

Why are males likely to show more sexual jealousy than females?

Answer 10

Unlike females, men can never be truly certain about whether or not they have truly fathered a child.​ (Paternity uncertainty).

Question 11

Why is the raising of non-biological offspring considered negative, according to the evolutionary explanation of aggression?

Answer 11

According to the evolutionary explanation any investment in offspring that do not share the male’s genes is a waste of time and resources.

It contributes to survival of a rival’s genes and leaves the ‘father’ with fewer resources to invest in his own future offspring.

Question 12

According to the evolutionary explanation any investment in offspring that does not share the male’s genes is a waste of time and resources.

How can this be criticised?

Answer 12

You can have tests to find out genetics, reducing the impacts of paternity uncertainty.

Step parents and adoption, adoptive parents are placing time and money into the upbringing of a child that isn’t biologically theirs, however, in most cases this drastically positively benefits the infant.

Question 13

Women do not have paternity uncertainty, but they do experience what? What does this mean?

Answer 13

The worry that a partner is investing time and emotional effort into someone else.

Question 14

What did Harris state in 2003?

Answer 14

Stated that men were more likely to be distressed by sexual infidelity and females by emotional infidelity.

Question 15

What did Looy state in 2001?

Answer 15

Stated that jealousy in women is triggered by the presence​ of younger, more attractive women.

Question 16

What happened to males in our evolutionary past who could avoid cuckoldry?

Answer 16

They were more reproductively successful (more likely to pass on their genes).

Question 17

What has been evolved in order to increase anti-cuckoldry behaviours in males?

Answer 17

Psychological mechanisms.

Question 18

How have psychological mechanisms been evolved in order to increase anti-cuckoldry behaviour in males?

Answer 18

Sexual jealousy is more strongly experienced in males than females.

This drives the often aggressive strategies men employ to retain their partners and prevent them from ‘straying’; strategies that were adaptive in our evolutionary history. ​

Question 19

What ‘strategies’ could be employed to prevent females straying? What do these do?

Answer 19

Mate retention strategies.

These try and retain partners.
E.g. males retaining females.

Question 20

What are the 2 types of mate retention strategy? Give an example for each.

Answer 20

Vigilance over a partner’s behaviour:

E.g. keeping them physically close.
E.g. going through someone’s messages.
E.g. limiting contact with other people.

Negative inducements:

E.g. guilt tripping/ trapping.
E.g. suicidal threats and blame.
E.g. confidence degrading.
E.g. threatening a lack of resources.

Question 21

Outline Wilson’s study from 1996.

(Supports the idea that aggression is completed in order to ensure passing of genes)
(Mate retention strategies).

Answer 21

Supports the idea that aggression is completed in order to ensure passing of genes.

This is because women who reported male retention strategies in their partners (agreed with statements such as ‘he insists on knowing who you are with and where you are at all times’) were twice as likely to have suffered physical violence at the hands of their partners.​

Of these women, 73% required medical attention and 53% said they feared for their lives. ​

This suggests that the men employ aggression in order to retain their partners, as a means of stopping them from leaving and cuckolding the male.

Question 22

Outline Shackelford et al’s study from 2005.

(Supports the evolutionary explanation of aggression)
(IPV in heterosexual couples).

Answer 22

Supports the evolutionary explanation of aggression.

This is because they studied IPV in heterosexual couples of less than a year.

107 married couples completed different questionnaires, men completing the Mate Retention Inventory, (assessing mate retention behaviours in various categories (e.g. direct guarding) - with the women completing the Spouse Influence Report, (measuring the extent of their partner’s violence in their relationship). ​

They found a strong positive correlation between men’s reports of their mate retention behaviours and women’s reports of their partners’ physical violence.

This suggests that men who used mate retention strategies were more likely to use physical violence against their partners, and that these questionnaires reliably predicted the husbands’ behaviour.

It highlights the link between high risks of infidelity, cuckoldry, and aggression.

However, as couples completed questionnaires, they may have been influenced by social desirability bias - being less inclined to answer questions on e.g. infidelity.

Question 23

Outline Campbell, Buss, and Shackelford’s research from (1997) and (1999).

(Supports the evolutionary explanation of aggression)

Answer 23

Supports the evolutionary explanation of aggression.

This is because they found that men are more likely to be involved in physical aggression than females.

Campbell (1999) argued that a female with offspring is motivated to be less aggressive because such behaviour would put her survival and offspring’s survival at risk, thus a more adaptive strategy for females is to use verbal aggression as a means of retaining a partner who provides resources, and to avoid becoming involved in life-threatening physical aggression (Buss and Shackelford, 1997). ​

This would also explain why women are more likely than men to use non-aggressive methods of resolving disputes.

This ability to explain gender differences is a strength of evolutionary theory as an explanation of aggression. ​

Question 24

Outline the !Kung San people as a cultural differences of the evolutionary explanation for aggression.

Answer 24

Supports cultural differences with aggression.

This is because they have very negative attitudes towards aggression, with it being discouraged from childhood and as a result rarely occurs; those who do use it have a diminished reputation within the community. ​

This suggests that patterns of aggression are not universal.

Question 25

Outline the Yanomamo people as a cultural differences of the evolutionary explanation for aggression.

Answer 25

Supports cultural differences with aggression.

This is because aggression is an accepted and required behaviour in order to gain status in their highly structured society. ​

This suggests that patterns of aggression are not universal.

Question 26

How does the existence of such wide cultural differences in aggression affect the validity of the evolutionary explanation?

Answer 26

The fact that there are such vast differences in human species.

Aggression is better explained through psychological explanations, rather than a biological explanations.

Question 27

What are the wider implications of the evolutionary explanation for aggression?

Answer 27

This explanation seems to suggest that it is excusable and beyond a person’s control.

This has important consequences within the legal system and within society generally.

Question 28

Why does the evolutionary explanation for aggression have important consequences within the legal system (and society in general)?

Answer 28

It generates excuses for violence, biologically determined aggression.

Biology supports the behaviour, takes away free-will and consequence.

It removes a responsibility from the individual, as e.g. male biology is deemed aggressive.

Question 29

Is the evolutionary explanation for aggression socially sensitive? How?

Answer 29

Research is socially sensitive and should therefore be conducted with care. ​

This is because it almost justifying that behaviour aggressive behaviour in relationships is okay.

This behaviour is inevitable, people in situations find it harder to get out.

Question 30

Outline issues with gender bias within the evolutionary explanation for aggression.

Answer 30

Most studies have focused solely on men’s retention strategies and men’s violence against women.

Real world research e.g. not contrived in a lab setting, not responding to questionnaires (subject to bias such as SD, are examples of retrospective data and DCs)

Question 31

Outline strengths within the evolutionary explanation for aggression.

Answer 31

Does explain some difference types of aggression in the context of evolution and resource acquirement e.g. in the workplace to climb the ladder, bullying to maintain a position of dominance.

This theory is consistent with the findings that there are sex differences in aggression.

Use of supporting evidence e.g. attractiveness in aggression in males (Sadalla, 1987).

Question 32

Give 3 weakness of the evolutionary explanation for aggression.

Answer 32

Biological and social components:
Bring in other approaches, e.g. neural, genetics, hormonal.
Social approaches e.g. slt, past experiences (childhood), deindividuation.

Cross cultural differences - suggest learning over evo:
Difference in tribes (mentioned above somewhere).evo suggests similar patterns of behaviour, so it must be explained somewhere else.

Different types of aggression/ assault that can’t be explained by this theory:
E.g. pro social, putting yourself in danger to protect someone else’s genes.

Women’s mate retention strategies?:
Focuses on male aggression, but doesn’t clarify any female specific strategies.

Theory based on heterosexual relationships:
Link back to relevance of society today.

Contradictory evidence of aggression being an attractive behaviour (Snyder, 2008):
Aggression seen as unattractive in today society.

Question 33

Outline Felson’s study from 1997.

(Supports the idea that there is a gender bias in aggression research)
(Gender bias)

Answer 33

Supports the idea that there is a gender bias in aggression research.

This is because they examined 2,650 murders in US and found that women were twice as likely to murder out of jealousy as men. ​

This suggests that previous research may have not considered reversed gender roles in evolution.