Ethological Explanations

Question 1

Give 2 examples of Aggressive behaviour in non-human animals.

Answer 1

Gorilla: chest-beating, fighting.

Snakes: hissing, spitting, defence.

Hippo, roaring, showing big teeth.

Question 2

Why is aggression a biologically adaptive behaviour?

Answer 2

Increased access to resources.

Social group status.

Defence to avoid being challenged by same species, and potential predator species.

Prevent others from taking resources from offspring.

Question 3

What are the two premises of ethology?

Answer 3

Aggression is an instinct. It occurs in all members of a species without the need for learning.

It is innate and mostly genetically determined.

Question 4

What did Darwin state in 1859.

Answer 4

Ethologists study aggression in non-human animals and extrapolate their findings to humans because we are all subject to the same forces of natural selection.

Question 5

The main functions of aggression are adaptive. What does this mean?

Answer 5

It increases the likelihood of survival.

Being aggressive means you are more likely to survive.

Question 6

Outline the benefits of intraspecies fighting.

Answer 6

A defeated animal within a species is rarely killed but forced to establish territory elsewhere.

This means that members of a species are spread out over a wider area and have to discover resources elsewhere.

This reduces intra-species competition which is beneficial to the species as a whole as reduces competition pressure and possibility of starvation etc.

Question 7

Outline the negatives of intraspecies fighting.

Answer 7

A defeated animal within a species is rarely killed but forced to establish territory elsewhere.

However, if an animal is killed due to the aggressive behaviour, then it negatively impacts the species, as there is less of them (in total) to survive and thus reproduce.

Question 8

Why do male chimpanzees establish hierarchies? How does this benefit the more aggressive chimpanzees?

Answer 8

As it allows them to climb their troops social hierarchy.

Increased competitive advantages.
Greater reproductive success.

Question 9

What research investigates hierarchy establishment in humans?

Answer 9

Pettit et al, (1988).

Question 10

Outline the study completed by Pettit et al, from 1988.

(Supports the idea of aggression in human hierarchies)

Answer 10

Supports the idea of aggression in human hierarchies.

This is because they studied play groups in young human children, finding aggression to be an important role in the development of children’s dominance over others.

This suggests the actions are adaptive (and thus naturally selected) because dominance over others bring benefits such as the power to get your own way and access to resources.

However, this could be challenged, as within modern society being in a lower hierarchical position has minimal devastating effects; instead, adaptive characteristics have changed within the modern world may end you in prison (‘showing off’ by being aggressive).

Equally, it is only young children, so is not representative of the entire population; and the pre-frontal cortex develops with age, so these children provide an even weaker sample as they are not fully developed.

Question 11

What is a ritual? Give an example of a ritual.

Answer 11

A series of behaviours set out in a set order.

E.g. kangaroos puffing out their chest.

Question 12

What did Lorenz observe? What did he see?

Answer 12

Lorenz observed rituals during intra-species fights and saw that very little physical damage was actually done.

Question 13

Most aggressive encounters in non-human animals consisted of a period of what? Give an example.

Answer 13

Most aggressive encounters consisted of a period of ritualistic signalling e.g. body language, growling - and

Question 14

Do aggressive encounters in non-human animals often result in physical confrontation?

Answer 14

No, they rarely reached the point of becoming physical.

Question 15

What does intra-species aggression tend to usually end with?

Answer 15

Ritual appeasement displays.

Question 16

What is a ritual appeasement display? Give an example.

Answer 16

Behaviour that indicates acceptance of defeat and inhibits aggressive behaviour in the victor

For example, wolves lying on its back, exposing its neck to the victor.

Question 17

How is a ritual appeasement display adaptive?

Answer 17

Increases survival for the species, as neither animal is fatally harmed or killed.

Spreads the population further abroad, as most submissive outcasts are rejected elsewhere.

Reduces competition for species, as outcasts are moved away from the habitat.

Question 18

What did Lorenz believe about aggression?

Answer 18

Believed that aggression was similar to food, drink and sleep in that it was a drive that needed to be satisfied.

Animals have innate, in-built physiological mechanisms/processes or structures for aggression and aggressive behaviour acted as a release.

The drive, Lorenz argued, then built up again until the next aggressive act was performed.

Question 19

What is a sign stimuli? Give an example.

Answer 19

Something in the environment that alerts the individual to aggression

E.g. snarling, growling.

Question 20

What is an innate-releasing mechanism? Give an example.

Answer 20

The specific neural circuits hardwired into the brain which monitor any drive, in this instance, aggression.

E.g. neural circuits/ brain structures/ collections of neurons triggered in response to a sign stimuli.

Question 21

What is a fixed-action pattern? Give an example.

Answer 21

Behavioural response to an IRM.

These may be aggressive response or rituals.

E.g. appeasement/submission, gnarling, baring teeth.

Question 22

What happens when a sign stimuli is experienced?

Answer 22

The sign stimuli triggers IRM, that then triggers a FAP.

Question 23

Does a FAP affect everyone in a species? Thus is it universal?

Answer 23

All members (almost) of the same species behave in this way.

It describes a universal (but species-specific) behaviour.

Question 24

Are FAPs innate? Why?

Answer 24

Yes, as they are universal across a species.

Question 25

What did Lea suggest in 1984?

Answer 25

Suggested six main features of FAP.

Question 26

What did Lea suggest where the six main features of FAPs?

Answer 26

Stereotypical.

Universal.

Unaffected by learning.

Ballistic.

Single purpose.

A response to an identifiable sign stimulus in the environment.

Question 27

Outline ‘universal’ as a main feature of FAPs, proposed by Lea in 1984.

Answer 27

Universal, because the same behaviour is found in every individual of the species.

Question 28

Outline ‘unaffected by learning’ as a main feature of FAPs, proposed by Lea in 1984.

Answer 28

Unaffected by learning, the same for each individual regardless of experience.

Question 29

Outline ‘ballistic’ as a main feature of FAPs, proposed by Lea in 1984.

Answer 29

Ballistic. Once triggered, the behaviour follows an inevitable course and cannot be altered before it is completed.

Question 30

Can a FAP be stopped before completion? Give an example.

Answer 30

Once triggered, the FAP behaviour can’t be stopped ‘midstream’, but must play out to completion.

E.g. yawning.

Question 31

Can FAPs occur in humans? Give an example.

Answer 31

Humans also demonstrate fixed action patterns.

E.g. yawning.

Question 32

Outline the FAP of yawning.

Answer 32

Yawns last around 6 seconds and are difficult to stop once started.

Once you begin to yawn, this instinctive, hard-wired response must run its course, from beginning to end.

Question 33

Outline Tinbergen’s 1952 study.

(Supports the idea that FAP are innate adaptive and innate)

Answer 33

Supports the idea that FAP are innate adaptive and innate.

They used models that resembled male and female sticklebacks (male: red bellies, female: swollen bellies).

All male sticklebacks attacked the model designed to look like a male member of the species, showing that the behaviour is invariant, and completed as a means of increasing survival; this was even demonstrated when models that weren’t shaped like sticklebacks, but had red underbellies were presented to the males.

This suggests that FAPs are universal in animal species.

Question 34

In what animals are FAPs most common?

Answer 34

Relatively simple cognitive abilities.

High in instinctive behaviour.

Question 35

Are FAPs present in human adults?

Answer 35

Human adults are devoid of such stereotypical behaviours which can only be seen in vestigial instincts in humans. E.g. Babies grasp instincts.

Question 36

What has shaped human aggression? How?

Answer 36

human evolution has uniquely shaped the way aggression is displayed.

Humans are unique in the complexity of their emotions, intelligence and social relationships.

Question 37

Outline Tinbergen.

(Challenges the idea that ritual aggression is seen in humans)

Answer 37

Challenges the idea that ritual aggression is seen in humans.

This is because they stated that while animal aggression towards conspecifics rarely results in harm, in humans the goal of aggression appears to be a deep rooted desire to harm one another; just because behaviours in different species look similar does not mean the underlying motivations and functions are.

Evolutionary influences are evident in human behaviour and we do face the same evolutionary pressures, however, humans and animals have responded to the pressures in different ways.

Question 38

Outline Eibl-Eibesfeldt’s study from 1977.

(Supports the idea that ritual aggression is seen in humans)

Answer 38

Supports the idea that ritual aggression is seen in humans.

This is because they argued a number of patterns of aggression in men are highly ritualised and are similar to behaviour found in animals, such as warfare.

However, he also felt that there was an element of control that we are born with, which prevents us from massacring other groups of people.

This suggests that there is a distinction between the automatic processing of animals and the more considered processing of humans, so the ethological explanation has limited usefulness in explaining aggression in humans.

Question 39

What did Lorenz not study?

(Evaluation)

Answer 39

Lorenz did not study higher mammals such as primates.

Question 40

What did Tinbergen not study?

(Evaluation)

Answer 40

Tinbergen chose not to study the kind of extreme destructive violence that is an all-too-frequent feature of human aggression.

Question 41

What did both Lorenz and Tinbergen do with their results?

(Evaluation)

Answer 41

They both made generalisations about aggressive behaviour in humans, including warfare.

Lorenz also extrapolated from the behaviour of individual animals to the behaviour of entire countries and states.

Question 42

What does the ethological explanation for aggression lack? Why? What could be argued against this?

(Evaluation)

Answer 42

Ethological explanations lacks validity.

Because behaviour is defined as aggressive by its outcome, such as killing or injuring another animal.

However, it could be argued that this is purely predatory behaviour and the aggressive intent is not present; it is a survival behaviour to get food.

Question 43

Why is there no definitive way of demonstrating aggressive behaviour in non-human animals?

(Evaluation)

Answer 43

Animals cannot communicate how they feel, therefore there is no definitive way of demonstrating that the observed behaviour is meant to be aggressive.

Question 44

Give one key point of the ethological explanation of aggression.

(Evaluation)

Answer 44

The aggressive behaviour is universal to the species.

Question 45

Is universally aggressive behaviour seen in humans? Give an example.

(Evaluation)

Answer 45

Not the case for humans as even within the same situation, people will act differently.

E.g. if someone is being robbed, some may show aggression back, whereas some may run away.

Question 46

Instead of universally aggressive behaviour in humans (FAPs), what explanation would link better? Explain.

(Evaluation)

Answer 46

Universally aggressive behaviour is not seen in humans as even within the same situation, people will act differently.

Instead the biological explanation, and theories on fight or flight processes, may link better.

E.g. For the fight or flight response, the IRM may be seen as the sympathetic branch of the nervous system, being activated.

E.g. The FAP would then be either the fight or flight action.

Question 47

By stating that aggressive behaviour is humans is universal, what should this confer? Give an example.

(Evaluation)

Answer 47

Explaining aggression in this way suggests that it should confer an evolutionary advantage.

It is possible that this happens in some circumstances, for example running faster to avoid being robbed.

However, this is not always the case, for example, ending up in prison for starting a fight.