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evolution and diveristy Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

what is a cladogram

A

an evolutionary tree that shows the recency of common ancestry

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2
Q

what is a dendrogram?

A

an evolutionary tree that adds times of divergence

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3
Q

what is a phylogram?

A

an evolutionary tree that shows the amount of evolution

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4
Q

what is autapomorphy?

A

distinctive feature / chracteristic found in a single group and not in others

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5
Q

what is plesiomorphy?

A

primitive character shared by two or more species

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6
Q

what is convergence?

A

unrelated organisms share the same feature

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7
Q

what is synapomorphy?

A
  • shared derived character
  • can be evidence for a relationship
  • needed to build trees
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8
Q

ingroup

A

groups to which individuals belong / identify

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9
Q

outgroup

A

groups to which individiduals do not belong or identify

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10
Q

how to identify derived features?

A

if they are not shared = derived

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11
Q

what is parsimony?

A
  • occurs when there are two possible trees
  • successful one is the one with the fewest number of steps / evolutionary changes
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12
Q

classification of taxnomic groups

A

domain
kingdom
phylum
class
order
family
genus
species

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13
Q

paraphyletic groups

A
  • groups grouped by the absence of something
  • or share something that is primitive
  • originate from same ancestor but does not involve all descendents from that ancestor
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14
Q

monophyly

A
  • evolved just once
  • descendent from a single ancestor
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15
Q

paraphyly

A
  • evolved more than once
  • unrelated organisms decended from more than one ancestor
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16
Q

what is the stem group?

A

set of extinct taxa

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17
Q

what is the crown group?

A

all living members of the paraphyletic assemblage

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18
Q

clades

A
  • have real evolutionary gaps
  • group of organsims with a single ancestor
  • cladistic classification comprises only of monophyletic groups
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19
Q

grades

A
  • have artificial gaps
  • united by a level of morphological or physiological complexity
  • similar due to adaptation or convergence
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20
Q

what is the molecular clock hypothesis?

A

the amont of evolutionary change in a given gene across different lineages is approximately constant over time
- depends on the gene: some evolve faster than others

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21
Q

molecular clocks

A
  • measure evolutionary change over time at a molecular level
  • based on the theory that spontaneous mutations occur
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22
Q

when does saturation occur?

A

when sequence divergence is not linear over time

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23
Q

solutions to saturation

A
  • try another gene
  • try and model DNA sequence evolution
  • use other kinds of molecular data
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24
Q

types of genetic substitutions

A
  • transitions e.g. A to G or C to T
  • transversions (rare) e.g. A to C or G to T
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25
Q

evidence that we can infer phylogeny

A
  • different genes for the same species (usually) produce the same tree
  • compare inferred tree to “known” phylogeny
  • computer simulations
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26
Q

long branch attraction theory

A

when 2 very different taxa or clades with long branch lengths are inferred as each others closest relative due to convergent evolution of a given character

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27
Q

altruism

A

when an individuals behaviour benefits other at a cost to itself

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28
Q

altruism in bees

A
  • 50% chance of genes being passed onto next gen even if die due to siblings
  • help colony at potential cost of itself
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29
Q

eusociality

A

tendency for inidividuals to reduce their own lifetime reproductive potential to raise the offspring of others

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30
Q

gradualism

A

evolution as a slow steady process where organisms change and develop slowly over time

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31
Q

punctuated equilibrium

A
  • long periods of no evolutionary change followed by rapid periods of change
  • intermediate forms rare
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32
Q

species richness

A

number of different species in a community

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33
Q

species diversity

A
  • measures how two species differ
  • relative abundance the two species
  • identifies any patterns and functional importance
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34
Q

how can we measure / interpret genetic variation?

A
  • allele / genotype frequency data -> how distributed in terms of abundance
  • DNA sequence data via phylogenic trees
  • DNA sequence data vie population genetics analyses
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35
Q

allozymes

A

used to identify genetic variation within a population or species by running protein through a charged matrix
- enzyme phenotypes rather than genotypes

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36
Q

gene flow

A
  • movement of genes in / out of a population
  • spread of alleles by interbreeding
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37
Q

population structure

A

can be a barrier to gene flow

38
Q

allele frequencies

A
  • homogenized across populations by gene flow
  • differentiated by population structure
39
Q

neutral variation

A
  • multiple alleles present at a given genetic locus because those alleles are not distinguished by natural selection
40
Q

genetic drift

A

change in frequency of an existing gene variant in pop due to random chance

41
Q

microsatellites

A

short repeated sequeces of DNA in a genome
lots of genetic variation due to repeats frequently added or lost

42
Q

haplotypes

A

individual alleles
set of DNA variants along a single chromosome that tend to be inherited together

43
Q

polymorphism

A

presence of 2 or more variant forms of a specific DNA sequence

44
Q

DNA barcoding

A

using DNA sequences from a certain region on the genome to identify species

45
Q

operational taxonomic units

A

defining distinct lingeages based on arbitrary threshold of genetic distance

46
Q

taxonomy

A

discovery, description and identification of species

47
Q

systematics

A

relationships among species

48
Q

what is needed for species descriptions?

A
  • need to know which species already exist first
  • unique name
  • diagnosis for recognizing
  • detailed anatomical description
  • type specimen
49
Q

how many species are there?

A
  • birds & mammals: 2x as many tropic species as temperate species
  • most species are insects (2/3 outside tropics)
  • around 3-5 million species
50
Q

what is a functional trait?

A

a phenotype or characteristic of an organism (defined by its niche) that defines its fitness and could affect its survival
- e.g. morphology, development, behaviour…

51
Q

what do different morphological characteristics indicate?

A

that the species perform varied functions in the ecosystem with high functional diversity

52
Q

functional diversity

A

surrounds the range of things that organisms do in ecosystems and communities

more functional diveristy = more stable ecosystem

53
Q

functional redundancy

A

species loss by compensating with other species that have similar functions

54
Q

energy flow of the foodchain

A

is an ecosystem function that sustains myriad animal consumers

55
Q

ecosystem function

A

capacity of natural processes and components to provide goods and services that satisfy human needs, either directly or indirectly

56
Q

ecosystem process

A
  • the physical, chemical, and biological processes that link organisms and their environment
  • primary production, respiration, energy, carbon and nutrient flow through food webs, reproduction, and decomposition
57
Q

primary productivity

A

growth of plant species in the ecosystem level
a fundamental metric of ecosystem function

58
Q

the complementarity hypothesis

A
  • the more species in a community, the greater the probability that these will belong to different functional groups.
  • this increases the complementary resource-use which leads to more productivity
59
Q

the facilitation hypothesis

A

some species have a positive effect on the ecosystem role played by other species

60
Q

why is ecosystem function enhanced when we have more species?

A

benefit from each other

61
Q

sampling effect

A

result of increased probability that a productive species will be found in a community with many species

62
Q

the selection effect hypothesis

A

the more species present in an assemblage, the higher the likelihood that a particular productive or efficient species will be present in the community
-> species rich communities more productive bc more likely to contain an essentially productive species

63
Q

molecular diversity

A

connectivity and impacts of habitat fragmentation important to understand threats that decrease population size

64
Q

taxonomic diversity

A

how things are names could affect conservation priorities

65
Q

functional diversity

A

ecosystems vs single species management
- carnivores need herbivores to eat that need plants to eat…..

66
Q

what are conservation priorities based on?

A

phylogenetic distinctiveness
- e.g. do certain endemic species lack close relatives?

67
Q

what factors affect genetic variation?

A
  • population structure and demography e.g barriers to gene flow & consequences to habitat fragmentation
  • mating systems e.g. inbreeding
  • selection e.g. adapt to changing conditions
68
Q

inbreeding depression

A

reduction in fitness of inbred vs outbred individuals

69
Q

deleterious recessive mutations

A

hidden with outbreeding but exposed after inbreeding due to increased homozygosity

70
Q

taxonomy

A

the discovery and description of species

71
Q

systematics

A

the inference of relationships among species

72
Q

reproductive assurance

A

more potential mating partners if dont have to avoid relatives

73
Q

purging

A

survivors have removed negative mutations

74
Q

outbreeding depression

A

happens when crosses between two genetically distant groups or populations result in a reduction of fitness
- e.g. if you mix the northern and southern african wild dog populations -> due to large genetic differences

75
Q

biological species concept

A
  • defines a species taxon as a group of organisms that can successfully interbreed and produce fertile offspring.
  • groups of actually or potentially inbreeding populations
76
Q

ecological species concept

A
  • set of organisms adapted to a certain set of resources (niche) in the environment
77
Q

evolutionary significant units

A

number of genetically distinct populations deserving seperate protection

78
Q

keystone species

A

an organism that helps hold the system together.

79
Q

how to calculate the amount of evolution?

A

rate x time
(can be slow rate x long time or fast rate x short time)

80
Q

types of evolutionary changes

A
  • constituous change
  • episodic change
81
Q

how can we get evolutionary dates?

A
  • fossils
  • biogeogaphy
  • hosts and parasites
82
Q

fossils and evolutionary dates

A
  • they provide an estimate of the minimum age only
  • fossils from sister groups must be the same age
  • fossils and molecular data can show the molecular divergence
83
Q

cospeciation and evolutionary dates

A
  • occurs when interacting groups, such as hosts and parasites, speciate in tandem, generating congruent phylogenies
  • can help date things surrounding the host
  • assume parasites have cospeciated not switched hosts
84
Q

founder event speciation

A

acestral species -> small popularion founded by a few individuals -> small population becomes genetically isolated from ancestral species

85
Q

advantage of molecular evolution

A

can compare rates using same units

86
Q

speciational change evolution

A

if evolutionary changes happen over species

87
Q

gradual change evolution

A

evolutionary changes scattered throughout the tree

88
Q

biogeographical barriers

A
  • rivers
  • islands
  • drowing (of land)
  • disjunctions
  • fault lines
  • vicariance
89
Q

disjunctions

A

when two or more groups that are related are considerably separated from each other geographically

90
Q

vicariance

A

the study of repeated patterns of disjunct distributions within many members of a biota that may be explained by vicariance (or splitting) and other historical events

animal biology (4 decks)

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