Everything's An Argument Chapter 1: Understanding Arguments Flashcards
What two reasons did Aristotle say students needed to learn the arts of rhetoric for?
to get their ideas across effectively and to protect themselves from being manipulated by others
What is propaganda?
an argument advancing a point of view without regard to reason, fairness, or truth
What is reading vertically?
within the site itself, examining elements such as the name of authors, the bibliography, even official logos, and other visual elements to test their soundness and authenticity
What is lateral reading?
the process of validating a text by checking what other sources–typically online–say about it.
What adage, said by Ronald Reagan, applies to lateral reading?
verify, then trust
What are 6 ways to defend against misrepresentation in what you read?
Pay attention, be wary of “click bait”, look for any unstated assumption behind claims, distinguish between verified facts and unproven claims, learn to triangulate, become a fact-checker!
What is an assumption?
a belief regarded as true, upon which other claims are based
What does it mean to triangulate when reading?
to look for corroboration from other reliable sources by reading laterally
Who recommends a “stance of openness”
Krista Ratcliffe
What is a “stance of openness”
a stance of listening rhetorically that you can take in relation to any person, text, or culture.
What is a stance?
the writer’s attitude toward the topic and the audience
What are filter bubbles
Echo chambers created by media algorithms that feed us what we prefer to read
What are “others”
those who differ in opinion or experience from our own
What is an audience?
the person or persons to whom an argument is directed
What are arguments to convince
arguments that lead an audience to accept a claim as true or reasonable–based on factual and reliable evidence
What are arguments to persuade?
arguments that seek to move people from conviction to action
What are arguments to make decisions?
arguments about determining the best options in a given situation, whether political or personal–from managing out-of-control deficits to choosing majors or careers
What are invitational arguments?
a term used by Sonja Foss and Cindy Griffin to describe arguments that are aimed not at vanquishing an opponent but at inviting others to collaborate in exploring mutually satisfying ways to solve problems
What is a Rogerian argument?
an approach to argumentation based on the principle, articulated by psychotherapist Carl Rogers, that audiences respond best when they don’t feel threatened. Rogerian argument stresses trust and urges those who disagree to find common ground
What is rhetoric?
the art of persuasion. Western rhetoric originated in Ancient Greece as a discipline to prepare citizens for arguing cases in court.
What are Aristotle’s occasions for argument?
arguments that are concerned with the past, future, or present
What are forensic arguments?
an argument that deals with actions that have occurred in the past. Sometimes called judicial arguments, forensic arguments include legal cases involving judgements of guilt or innocence
What are deliberative arguments?
an argument that deals with action to be taken in the future, focusing on matters of policy. Deliberative arguments include parliamentary debates and campaign platforms.
What are epideictic or ceremonial arguments?
an argument that deals with current values and addresses questions of praise and blame. Also called epideictic, ceremonial arguments include eulogies and graduation speeches.
What are past arguments called?
forensic
What are past arguments concerned with?
What happened in the past?
What do past arguments look like?
court decisions, legal briefs, legislative hearings, investigative reports, academic studies
What are future arguments called>
deliberative
What are future arguments concerned with?
What should be done in the future
What are examples of future arguments?
white papers, proposals, bills, regulations, mandates
What are present arguments called?
epideictic or ceremonial arguments
What are present arguments concerned with?
Who or what deserves praise or blame
What are examples of present arguments?
eulogies, graduation speeches, inaugural addresses, roasts
What is statis theory?
in classical rhetoric, a method for coming up with appropriate arguments by determining the nature of a given situation: a question of the fact; of definition; of quality; or of policy.
What is the first question of statis theory?
did something happen?
What is the second question of statis theory?
what is its nature?
What is the third question of stasis theory?
What is its quality or cause?W
What is the fourth question of stasis theory?
What actions should be taken?
What is an argument of fact?
an argument in which the claim can be proved or disproved with specific evidence or testimony
What is a testimony?
a personal experience or observation used to support an argument
What are questions using arguments of fact?
where did the facts come from? are they reliable? is there a problem with the facts–with how they were gathered or who presented them? where did the problem begin and what caused it?
What do some of the most hotly debated issues in our lives today involve?
questions of definition
What are arguments of definition?
an argument in which the claim specifies that something does or doesn’t meet the conditions or features set forth in a definition
What are arguments of evaluation?
an argument in which the claim specifies that something does or doesn’t meet established criteria
What does porous mean?
when an argument defines its own issues
What is a proposal argument?
an argument in which a claim is made in favor of or opposing a specific course of action
What are lines of argument?
a strategy or approach used in an argument. Argumentative strategies include appeals to the heart (emotional appeals), to character (ethical appeals), and to facts and reason (logical appeals).
What are the three lines of argument?
ethos, pathos, and logos
What is ethos?
the self-image a writer creates to define a relationship with readers. In arguments, most writers try to establish an ethos that suggests authority, fairness, and credibility.
What are pathos?
a strategy in which a writer tries to generate specific emotions (such as fear, envy, anger, or pity) in an audience to dispose it to accept a claim
What is authority?
the quality conveyed by a writer who is knowledgable about a subject and confident in that knowledge
What is logos?
a strategy in which a writer uses facts, evidence, and reason to convince audience members to accept a claim
Who is Kairos
the youngest son of Zeus and god of opportunity
What is Kairos?
the opportune moment; in arguments, the timeliness of an argument and the most opportune ways to make it
What are rhetorical situations?
the relationship among topic, author, audience, and other contexts (social, cultural, political) that determines or evokes an appropriate spoken or written response
