Everything Flashcards
Acute Responses to Aerobic Exercise
CV Responses (Q varriables)
Respiratory Responses
Blood Pressure
CV response: From rest to steady-state aerobic exercise, Q initially does what?
increases rapidly, then more gradually, and subsequently reaches a plateau
With maximal exercise, Q may . . . .
increase to four times the resting level
With aerobic exs, SV increases due to :
EDV is significantly increased
At onset of exs, sympathetic stimulation increases SV
HR increases linearly with increases in intensity
Oxygen uptake increases during an acute bout of aerobic exercise and is directly related to the mass of exercising muscle, metabolic efficiency, and exs intensity
Q =
HR x SV HR X (ESV x EDV)
sv= esv x edv
Systolic Blood pressure estimates the
pressure exerted against the arterial walls as blood is forcefully ejected during ventricular contraction
Diastolic Blood Pressure used to estimate
pressure exerted against the arterial walls when no blood is being forcefully ejected through the vessels
CV responses
Control of Local Circulation
During aerobic exs, what is considerably increased by dilation of local arterioles?
blood flow to active muscles
Resp Responses
Aerobic exs provides the greatest impact on what two things?
oxygen uptake and CO2 production
resp responses
gas responses
During high-intensity aerobic exs, the pressure gradients of what causes what?
oxygen and co2 cause the movement of gases across cell membranes
resp responses
gas responses
the diffusing capacities of o2 and co2 do what w/ exercise, which does what
The diffusing capacities of o2 and CO2 increase dramatically w/ exs, which facilitates their exchange.
What carries most oxygen in the blood?
hemoglobin
Most carbon dioxide removal is from its combination with what?
water and delivery to the lungs in the form of bicarbonate.
During low- to moderate-intensity exercise, enough oxygen is available that lactic acid does not
accumulate because the removal rate is greater than or equal to the production rate.
The aerobic exercise level at which lactic acid (converted to blood lactate at this point) begins to show an increase is termed the
onset of blood lactate accumulation, or OBLA
Acute aerobic exercise results in what?
increased cardiac output, stroke volume, heart rate, oxygen uptake, systolic blood pressure, and blood flow to active muscles and a decrease in diastolic blood pressure.
During aerobic exercise, what happens with O2 and CO2?
large amounts of oxygen diffuse from the capillaries into the tissues, increased levels of carbon dioxide move from the blood into the alveoli, and minute ventilation increases to maintain appropriate alveolar concentrations of these gases.
Chronic Adaptations To Aerobic EXS
CV adaptations Resp adaptations Neural Adaptations Muscular adapts Bone & Connective Tissue Adaptations Endocrine Adapts
Chronic Adaptations To Aerobic EXS
CV adapations
Aerobic endurance training requires proper what?
progression, variation, specificity, and overload if physiological adaptations are to take place
Chronic Adaptations To Aerobic EXS
Resp Adapts
Ventilatory adapts are what ?
highly specific to activities that involve the type of exercise used in training
Chronic Adaptations To Aerobic EXS
Resp Adapts
Training adapts include what?
Increased tidal volume and breathing frequency with maximal exercise
Chronic Adaptations To Aerobic EXS
Neural Adapts
What is increased ?
What is delayed?
Efficiency is increased
Fatigue of the contractile mechanisms is delayed.
Chronic Adaptations To Aerobic EXS
Muscle Adapts
One of the fundamental adaptive responses to aerobic endurance training is what?
an increase in the aerobic capacity of the trained musculature
Chronic Adaptations To Aerobic EXS
Muscle Adapts
An increase in the aerobic capacity of the trained musculature allows the athlete to what?
perform a given absolute intensity of exs with greater ease after aerobic endurance training
Chronic Adaptations To Aerobic EXS
Bone and Connective Tissue Adapts
In mature adults, the extent to which tendons, ligaments, and cartilage grow and become stronger is what?
proportional to the intensity of the exercise stimulus, especially from weight-bearing activities
Chronic Adaptations To Aerobic EXS
Endo Adapts
Aerobic exercise leads to what
increases in hormonal circulation and changes at the receptor level.
Chronic Adaptations To Aerobic EXS
Endo Adapts
High-intensity aerobic endurance training does what?
augments the absolute secretion rates of many hormones in response to maximal exercise
Chronic Adaptations To Aerobic EXS
Endo Adapts
Trained athletes have what?
blunted (attenuated/ weakened) responses to submaximal exercise
Designing Aerobic Endurance Programs for Optimizing Adaptations
What is one of the most commonly measured adaptations to aerobic endurance training is what?
an increase in maximal oxygen uptake associated with an increase in maximal Q
Designing Aerobic Endurance Programs for Optimizing Adaptations
What is one of the most vital factors in improving and maintaining aerobic power?
intensity of training
What does aerobic endurance training result in?
reduced body fat, increased maximal oxygen uptake, increased respiratory capacity, lower blood lactate concentrations, increased mitochondrial and capillary densities, and improved enzyme activity.
External Influences on the Cardiorespiratory Response
Altitude
Hyperoxic Breathing
Smoking
Blood Doping
Changes begin to occur at elevations greater than
3,900 feet (1,200 m)
What changes begin at altitudes greater than 3900 ft?
Increased pulmonary ventilation
Increased cardiac output at rest and during submaximal exercise due to increases in heart rate
When do values return to normal at altitude greater than 1200m ?
Values begin to return toward normal within two weeks.
What kind of adjustments occur during prolonged altitude exposure?
Several chronic physiological and metabolic adjustments occur during prolonged altitude exposure.
Hyperoxic Breathing
Breathing oxygen-enriched gas mixtures during rest periods or following exercise may
positively affect exercise performance, although the procedure remains controversial.
Smoking
Acute effects of tobacco smoking could do what?
impair exercise performance.
Blood Doping
Artificially increasing red blood cell mass is unethical and poses serious health risks, yet it can do what?
improve aerobic exercise performance and may enhance tolerance to certain environmental conditions.
Individual Factors Influencing Adaptations to Aerobic Endurance Training
Genetic Potential
Age and Sex
Overtraining
Genetic Potential
The upper limit of an individual’s genetic potential dictates what?
the absolute magnitude of the training adaptation.
Age and Sex
Maximal aerobic power decreases
with age in adults.
Age and Sex
Aerobic power values of women range from what range of the values of men.
73% to 85% of the values of men.
The general physiological response to training is similar
in men and women.
Overtraining in aerobic exs
Cardiovascular Responses
Biochemical Responses
Endocrine Responses
Overtraining in aerobic exs
Cardiovascular Responses
Greater volumes of training affect what ?
heart rate
Overtraining in aerobic exs
Biochemical Responses
High training volume results in what?
increased levels of creatine kinase, indicating muscle damage
Overtraining in aerobic exs
Biochemical Responses
Muscle glycogen decreases
with prolonged periods of overtraining.
Overtraining in aerobic exs
Endocrine Responses
Overtraining may result in a
decreased testosterone-to-cortisol ratio, decreased secretion of GH, and changes in catecholamine levels.
What Are the Markers of Aerobic Overtraining?
Decreased performance Decreased percentage of body fat Decreased maximal oxygen uptake Altered blood pressure Increased muscle soreness Decreased muscle glycogen Altered resting heart rate
Increased submaximal exercise heart rate
Decreased lactate
Increased creatine kinase
Altered cortisol concentration
Decreased total testosterone concentration
Decreased ratio of total testosterone to cortisol
Decreased ratio of free testosterone to cortisol
Decreased ratio of total testosterone to sex hormone–binding globulin
Decreased sympathetic tone (decreased nocturnal and resting catecholamines)
Increased sympathetic stress response
AEROBIC TRAINING
Overtraining can lead to dramatic performance
decreases in athletes of all training levels and is caused by mistakesin the design of the training program.
Detraining
If inactivity, rather than proper recovery, follows exercise, an athlete loses training adaptations.
Testing can be used to assess what?
athletic talent, identify physical abilities and areas in need of improvement, set goals, and evaluate progress.
Test:
A procedure for assessing ability in a particular endeavor.
Field test:
A test used to assess ability that is performed away from the laboratory and does not require extensive training or expensive equipment.
Measurement:
The process of collecting test data.
Evaluation:
The process of analyzing test results for the purpose of making decisions.
Pre-test:
A test administered before the beginning of training to determine the athlete’s initial basic ability levels.
Mid-test:
A test administered one or more times during the training period to assess progress and modify the program as needed to maximize benefit.
Formative evaluation:
Periodic reevaluation based on mid-tests administered during the training, usually at regular intervals.
Post-test:
A test administered after the training period to determine the success of the training program in achieving the training objectives.
Evaluation of Test Quality
Validity Defined
The degree to which a test or test item measures what it is supposed to measure
What is the most important characteristic of testing?
Evaluation of Test Quality
Validity
Evaluation of Test Quality
Validity
What are the types of validity?
construct validity, face validity, content validity, & criterion-referenced validity
construct validity:
The ability of a test to represent the underlying construct (the theory developed to organize and explain some aspects of existing knowledge and observations).
face validity:
The appearance to the athlete and other casual observers that the test measures what it is purported to measure.
content validity:
The assessment by experts that the testing covers all relevant subtopics or component abilities in appropriate proportions.
criterion-referenced validity:
The extent to which test scores are associated with some other measure of the same ability.
Evaluation of Test Quality
Reliability:
A measure of the degree of consistency or repeatability of a test
Evaluation of Test Quality
Reliability
Measurement error can arise from the following/ what?
Intrasubject (within subjects) variability
Lack of interrater (between raters) reliability or agreement
Intrarater (within raters) variability
Failure of the test itself to provide consistent results
Intrasubject variability:
The lack of consistent performance by the person tested.
Interrater reliability:
The degree to which different raters agree; also referred to as objectivity or interrater agreement.
Intrarater variability:
The lack of consistent scores by a given tester.
Test Selection
Metabolic Energy System Specificity
Consider the energy demands (phosphagen, glycolytic, and oxidative) of the sport when choosing or designing tests.
Test Selection
Biomechanical Movement Pattern Specificity
The more similar the test is to an important movement in the sport, the better.
For a test to be valid, it must emulate
the energy requirements and important movements of the sport for which abilityis being tested.
Test Selection
Experience and Training Status
Consider the athlete’s ability to perform the technique.
Consider the athlete’s level of strength and endurance training.
Test Selection
Age and Sex
Both may affect athletes’.
experience, interest, and ability
Test Selection
Environmental Factors
High temperature and high humidity can
impair performance, pose health risks, and lower the validity of aerobic endurance tests.
Test Selection
Environmental Factors
Temperature fluctuations can
reduce ability to compare test results over time.
Test Selection
Environmental Factors
Altitude can
impair performance on aerobic endurance tests, although not on tests of strength and power.
Athletes’ experience, training status, age, and sex can
affect test performance, so these factors should be considered in test selection.
Environmental factors such as temperature, humidity, and altitude can also
influence test performance, so testers should try to standardize environmental conditions as much as possible.
Test Administration
What are the 3 Health and Safety Considerations
1) Be aware of testing conditions that can threaten the health of athletes (e.g., high heat and humidity).
2) Be observant of signs and symptoms of health problems that warrant exclusion from testing.
3. ) Be observant of the health status of athletes before, during, and after maximal exertions.
Test Administration
Selection and Training of Testers
Provide testers with practice and training. Ensure consistency among testers.
Test Administration
Recording Forms
Prepare scoring forms ahead of time to increase efficiency and reduce recording errors.
Test Administration
Test Format
Consider whether athletes will be tested
all at once or in groups. The same tester should administer a given test to all athletes if possible. Each tester should administer one test at a time.
Test Administration
Testing Batteries and Multiple Testing Trials
Duplicate test setups can be used for large groups.
Allow 2 to 3 minutes of rest between attempts that are not close to the athlete’s maximum, 3 to 5 minutes between attempts that are close to the maximum, and at least 5 minutes between test batteries.
Test Administration
Testing Batteries and Multiple Testing Trials
Duration
Allow 2 to 3 minutes of rest between attempts that are not close to the athlete’s maximum, 3 to 5 minutes between attempts that are close to the maximum, and at least 5 minutes between test batteries.
When multiple trials of a test or a battery of tests are performed, allow
complete recovery between trials.
Test Admin
Sequence of Tests
Nonfatiguing tests Agility tests Maximum power and strength tests Sprint tests Local muscular endurance tests Fatiguing anaerobic capacity tests Aerobic capacity tests
Test Administration
Preparing Athletes for Testing
Procedure
Announce the date, time, and purpose of a test battery in advance.
Host a pre-test practice session.
Provide clear and simple instructions.
Demonstrate proper test performance.
Organize a pre-test warm-up.
Tell athletes their test scores after each trial.
Administer a supervised cool-down period.
Test Administration
Testing Conditions
To maximize the reliability of tests, conditions should be
Warm-up for the tests should be standardized.
as similar as possible for all athletes tested and from test to retest of the same athlete.
Test Administration
Testing Conditions
Temperature and humidity, surface, and type of equipment should be
consistent.
Test Administration
Testing Conditions
Athletes should not be tested when
fatigued, or when glycogen depleted or overly full from a meal. They should arrive for testing normally hydrated.
Test Administration
Measuring Parameters of Athletic Performance
Maximum Muscular Strength & Power (Low-Speed & High-Speed Strength) Local Muscular Endurance Aerobic & Anaerobic Capacity Speed & Agility Anthropometry & Body Composition
Measuring Parameters of Athletic Performance
Maximum Muscular Strength
(Low-Speed Strength)
Related to the force a
muscle or muscle group can exert in one maximal effort
1RM bench press, 1 RM back squat
Measuring Parameters of Athletic Performance
Anaerobic or Maximum Muscular Power (High-Speed Strength)
Related to the ability of
muscle tissue to exert high force while contracting at a high speed (also called maximal anaerobic muscular power or anaerobic power)
1RM power clean, standing long jump, vertical jump, Margaria-Kalamen test
Most maximal muscular strength tests use
relatively slow movement speeds and therefore reflect low-speed strength.
Conversely, assessment of high-speed muscular strength can involve
measuring the 1RM of explosive resistance training exercises, the height of a vertical jump, or the time to sprint up a staircase.
Measuring Parameters of Athletic Performance
Local Muscular Endurance
Ability of certain muscles or muscle groups to per-form repeated contractions against a submaximal resistance
Partial curl-up, push-up, YMCA bench press test
Measuring Parameters of Athletic Performance
Anaerobic Capacity
Maximal rate of energy production by
the combined phosphagen and lactic acid energy systems for moderate-duration activities
300-yard (274 m) shuttle run
Measuring Parameters of Athletic Performance
Aerobic Capacity
Maximum rate at which an athlete can produce
energy through oxidation of energy resources (carbohydrates, fats, and proteins)
1.5-mile (2.4 km) run, 12-minute run
Measuring Parameters of Athletic Performance
Aerobic Capacity
Usually expressed as a
volume of oxygen consumed per kilogram of body weight per minute (i.e., ml · kg–1 · min–1); also called aerobic power
Measuring Parameters of Athletic Performance
Speed
Movement distance per
unit time, typically quantified as the time taken to cover a fixed distance
40-yard (37 m) sprint
Measuring Parameters of Athletic Performance
Agility
Ability to
stop, start, and change the direction ofthe body or body parts rapidly and in a controlled manner
T-test, hexagon test, pro agility test
Measuring Parameters of Athletic Performance
Flexibility
Range of motion about
a body joint
Sit-and-reach test
Measuring Parameters of Athletic Performance
Anthropometry
The science of measurement applied to
the human body
Measuring Parameters of Athletic Performance
Anthropometry Generally includes measurements of
height, weight, and selected body girths
Girth measurements
Measuring Parameters of Athletic Performance
Body Composition
Relative proportions by
weight of fat and lean tissue
Skinfold measurements
Statistical Evaluation of Test Data
Descriptive Statistics
Central Tendency
Statistical Evaluation of Test Data
Descriptive Statistics
Central Tendency
mean:
The average of the scores.
Statistical Evaluation of Test Data
Descriptive Statistics
Central Tendency
median:
The middlemost score when a set of scores is arranged in order of magnitude.
Statistical Evaluation of Test Data
Descriptive Statistics
Central Tendency
mode:
The score that occurs with the greatest frequency.
Statistical Evaluation of Test Data
What are the types of Statistics?
Descriptive Statistics
Inferential Statistics
Statistical Evaluation of Test Data
Descriptive Statistics
Variability
Percentile Rank
Statistical Evaluation of Test Data
Descriptive Statistics
Variability
Range
Standard Deviation
Statistical Evaluation of Test Data
Descriptive Statistics
Percentile Rank is defined as
The percentage of test takers scoring below an individual
Statistical Evaluation of Test Data
Descriptive Statistics
Variability
Range is what?
The interval from the lowest to the highest score.
Statistical Evaluation of Test Data
Descriptive Statistics
Variability
Standard Deviation
A measure of the variability of a set of scores about the mean.
Statistical Evaluation of Test Data
Inferential Statistics
Allows one to what?
draw general conclusions about a population from information collected in a population sample.
Statistical Evaluation of Test Data
Inferential Statistics
Population sample must be what?
representative.
Normal bell curve is what kind of distribution and its SD ?
“Normally distributed” scores form the bell-shaped curve shown in this figure. Standard deviation is most useful when scores are normally distributed.
Statistical Evaluation of Test Data
Developing an Athletic Profile Procedure
Select tests that will measure the
specific parameters most closely related to the characteristics of the sport or sports in question.
Statistical Evaluation of Test Data
Developing an Athletic Profile Procedure
Choose valid and reliable tests to
measure these parameters, and arrange the testing battery in an appropriate order with sufficient rest between tests to promote test reliability.
Statistical Evaluation of Test Data
Developing an Athletic Profile Procedure
Administer the test battery to
as many athletes as possible.
Statistical Evaluation of Test Data
Developing an Athletic Profile Procedure
Calculate percentile ranks to
present a visual profile.
Statistical Evaluation of Test Data
Developing an Athletic Profile Procedure
Evaluate the athlete based on percentile rank within
the group and against the individual’s best performances over previous years, if possible.
Warm-Up
Warming up can have the following positive impacts on performance:
Faster muscle contraction and relaxation of both agonist and antagonist muscles
Improvements in the rate of force development and reaction time
Improvements in muscle strength and power
Lowered viscous resistance in muscles
Improved oxygen delivery due to the Bohr effect whereby higher temperatures facilitate oxygen release from hemoglobin and myoglobin
Increased blood flow to active muscles
Enhanced metabolic reactions
Stretching During Warm-Up
Research suggests dynamic stretching is
the preferred option for stretching during warm-up.
Stretching During Warm-Up
Consider the
range of motion and stretch-shortening cycle requirements of the sport when designing a warm-up.
Components of a Warm-Up
A general warm-up period may consist of
5 to 10 minutes of slow activity such as jogging or skipping.
Components of a Warm-Up
A specific warm-up period incorporates
movements similar to the movements of the athlete’s sport. It involves 8 to 12 minutes of dynamic stretching focusing on movements that work through the range of motion required for the sport.
Components of a Cool-Down
A proper cool-down is important after
intense training and competition as the athlete place great demands on the musculoskeletal, nervous, immune, and metabolic systems.
Components of a Cool-Down
When implemented correctly a cool-down will reduce
muscle soreness decrements in power, mobility, speed, and agility.
There are many different modalities used to cool-down with no
definitive evidence that one is more effective than the other.
Flexibility is a
measure of range of motion (ROM) and has static and dynamic components.
Static flexibility is the
range of possible movement about a joint and its surrounding muscles during a passive movement.
Dynamic flexibility refers to the
available ROM during active movements and therefore requires voluntary muscular actions.
Flexibility and Performance
Optimal levels of flexibility exist for
each activity.
Flexibility and Performance
Injury risk may increase
outside this range.
Factors Affecting Flexibility Are:
Joint Structure
Structure determines
Age and Sex
Connective Tissue
Resistance Training With Limited Range of Motion
Muscle Bulk
Activity Level
Factors Affecting Flexibility
Age and Sex
Older people tend to be less
flexible than younger people; females tend to be more flexible than males.
Factors Affecting Flexibility
Connective Tissue
Elasticity and plasticity of
connective tissues affect ROM.
Factors Affecting Flexibility
Resistance Training With Limited Range of Motion
Exercise through a full ROM and develop both
agonist and antagonist muscles to prevent loss of ROM.
Factors Affecting Flexibility
Muscle Bulk
Large muscles may
impede joint movement.
Factors Affecting Flexibility
Activity Level
An active person tends to be more
flexible than an inactive one, but activity alone will not improve flexibility.
Factors Affecting Flexibility
Joint Structure
Structure determines the joint’s range of motion.
Flexibility
Frequency, Duration, and Intensity of Stretching
Acute effects of stretching on ROM are
transient.
Flexibility
Frequency, Duration, and Intensity of Stretching
For longer-lasting effects, a stretching program is
required.
Flexibility
When Should an Athlete Stretch?
Following practice and competition
Flexibility
When Should an Athlete Stretch?
Postpractice stretching facilitates
ROM improvements because of increased muscle temperature.
Flexibility
When Should an Athlete Stretch?
Stretching should be performed within
5 to 10 minutes after practice.
Flexibility
When Should an Athlete Stretch?
Postpractice stretching may also
decrease muscle soreness although the evidence on this is ambiguous.
Flexibility
When Should an Athlete Stretch?
As a separate session
If increased levels of flexibility are required,
additional stretching sessions may be needed.
Flexibility
When Should an Athlete Stretch?
As a separate session
In this case, stretching should be preceded by
a thorough warm-up to allow for the increase in muscle temperature necessary for effective stretching.
Flexibility
When Should an Athlete Stretch?
As a separate session
This type of session can be
especially useful as a recovery session on the day after a competition.
Flexibility
Proprioceptors and Stretching
Stretch reflex
A stretch reflex occurs when ?
Should this be avoided?
muscle spindles are stimulated during a rapid stretching movement. This should be avoided when stretching, as it will limit motion.
Flexibility
Proprioceptors and Stretching
Autogenic inhibition and reciprocal inhibition
Autogenic inhibition is accomplished via
active contraction before a passive stretch of the same muscle.
Flexibility
Proprioceptors and Stretching
Autogenic inhibition and reciprocal inhibition
Both result from stimulation of Golgi tendon organs, which cause
reflexive muscle relaxation.
Flexibility
Proprioceptors and Stretching
Autogenic inhibition and reciprocal inhibition
Reciprocal inhibition is accomplished by
contracting the muscle opposing the muscle that is being passively stretched.
Types of Stretching are ?
Static Stretch
Ballistic Stretch
Dynamic Stretch
Static Stretch
A static stretch is slow and constant, with the end position held for 30 seconds.
Ballistic Stretch
A ballistic stretch typically involves active muscular effort and uses a bouncing-type movement in which the end position is not held.
Dynamic Stretch
A dynamic stretch is a type of functionally based stretching exercise that uses sport-specific movements to prepare the body for activity.
Guidelines for Static Stretching:
Get into a position that facilitates relaxation.
Move to the point in the ROM where you experience a sensation of mild discomfort. If performing partner-assisted PNF stretching, communicate clearly with your partner.
Hold stretches for 30 seconds.
Repeat unilateral stretches on both sides
Types of Stretching
Precautions for Dynamic Stretching
Move progressively through the ROM.
Move deliberately but without bouncing (movement must be controlled at all times).
Do not forsake good technique for additional ROM.
Types of Stretching
Proprioceptive Neuromuscular Facilitation (PNF) Stretch
Hold-Relax is done how?
Passive prestretch (10 seconds), isometric hold (6 seconds), passive stretch (30 seconds)
Types of Stretching
Proprioceptive Neuromuscular Facilitation (PNF) Stretch
Contract-Relax is done how?
Passive prestretch (10 seconds), concentric muscle action through full ROM, passive stretch (30 seconds)
Types of Stretching
Proprioceptive Neuromuscular Facilitation (PNF) Stretch
Hold-Relax With Agonist Contraction
During third phase (passive stretch), concentric action of the agonist used to increase the stretch force
The hold-relax with agonist contraction is the
most effective PNF stretching technique due to facilitation via both reciprocal and autogenic inhibition.
Common PNF Stretches With a Partner
Calf and ankle Chest Groin Hamstrings and hip extensors Quadriceps and hip flexors Shoulder
Sources of Resistance to Muscle Contraction
Gravity
Applications to Resistance Training
When the weight is horizontally closer to the joint, it exerts
less resistive torque.
Sources of Resistance to Muscle Contraction
Gravity
When the weight is horizontally farther from a joint, it exerts
more resistive torque.
Sources of Resistance to Muscle Contraction
Gravity
Weight-Stack Machines
Gravity is the source of resistance, but machines provide
increased control over the direction and pattern of resistance.
In cam-based weight-stack machines, the moment arm (M) of the weight stack (horizontal distance from the chain to the cam pivot point) varies
during the exercise movement.
When the cam is rotated in the direction shown from position 1 to position 2, the moment arm of
the weights, and thus the resistive torque, increases.
Sources of Resistance to Muscle Contraction
Inertia
When a weight is held in a static position or whenit is moved at a constant velocity, it exerts constant resistance only in the downward direction.
However, upward or lateral acceleration of the weight requires additional force.
Sources of Resistance to Muscle Contraction
Friction
Friction is the resistive force encountered when one attempts to move an object while it is pressed against another object.
Sources of Resistance to Muscle Contraction
Fluid Resistance
Elasticity
Sources of Resistance to Muscle Contraction
Fluid Resistance
Fluid resistance is the resistive force encountered by an object moving through a fluid (liquid or gas), or by a fluid moving past or around an object or through an orifice.
Sources of Resistance to Muscle Contraction
Elasticity
The more an elastic component is stretched, the greater the resistance.
Exercise Technique Fundamentals
Handgrips
In the pronated grip, the palms
are down and the knuckles are up; also called the overhand grip.
Exercise Technique Fundamentals
Handgrips
In the supinated grip, the palms are
up and the knuckles are down; also known as the underhand grip.
Exercise Technique Fundamentals
Handgrips
In the neutral grip, the knuckles point
In the neutral grip, the knuckles point laterally—as in a handshake.
Exercise Technique Fundamentals
Handgrips
The alternated grip uses
one hand in a pronated grip and the other in a supinated grip.
Exercise Technique Fundamentals
Handgrips
The hook grip is similar
to the pronated grip except that the thumb is positioned under the index and middle fingers.
Exercise Technique Fundamentals
Handgrips
The thumb is
wrapped around the bar in all of the grips shown; this positioning is called a closed grip.
Exercise Technique Fundamentals
Handgrips
When the thumb does not wrap around the bar,
the grip is called an open or false grip.
Exercise Technique Fundamentals
Stable Body and Limb Positioning
A stable position enables the athlete to
maintain proper body alignment during an exercise, which in turn places an appropriate stress on muscles and joints.
Exercise Technique Fundamentals
Stable Body and Limb Positioning
Both free-weight and machine exercises require
a stable position.
Exercise Technique Fundamentals
Stable Body and Limb Positioning
The five-point body contact position provides
stability for seated or supine exercises.
Exercise Technique Fundamentals
Stable Body and Limb Positioning (cont’d)
Following is the five-point body contact position:
Head is placed firmly on the bench or back pad.
Shoulders and upper back are placed firmly and evenly on the bench or back pad.
Buttocks are placed evenly on the bench or seat.
Right foot is flat on the floor.
Left foot is flat on the floor.
Exercises performed while standing typically require
that the feet be positioned slightly wider than hip-width with the heels and balls of the feet in contact with the floor. Seated or supine exercises performed on a bench usually require a five-point body contact position.
Before performing machine exercises,
adjust seat and pads to position the body joint primarily involved in the exercise in alignment with the machine’s axis of rotation.
Exercise Technique Fundamentals
Range of Motion and Speed
A full range of motion maximizes
the value of an exercise and improves flexibility.
Exercise Technique Fundamentals
Range of Motion and Speed
Slow, controlled movements make it
easier to achieve a complete ROM, though quick movements are appropriate for power exercises
Exercise Technique Fundamentals
Breathing Considerations
The sticking point is the
most strenuous movement of a repetition, and it occurs soon after the transition from the eccentric phase to the concentric phase.
Exercise Technique Fundamentals
Breathing Considerations
Instruct athletes to exhale through
the sticking point and to inhale during the less stressful phase of the repetition.
Exercise Technique Fundamentals
Breathing Considerations
Valsalva maneuver
For experienced and well-resistance-trained athletes performing structural exercises
Will assist in maintaining proper vertebral alignment and support
Involves expiring against a closed glottis, which, when combined with contracting the abdomen and rib cage muscles, creates rigid compartments of fluid in the lower torso and air in the upper torso
Helps to establish the “flat-back” and erect upper torso position in many exercises
For most exercises, exhale through the
sticking point of the concentric phase and inhale during the eccentric phase.
Experienced and well-trained athletes may want to use
the Valsalva maneuver when performing structural exercises to assist in maintaining proper vertebral alignment and support.
Exercise Technique Fundamentals
Weight Belts
Typically an athlete should wear a weight belt when
performing exercises that place stress on the lower back and during sets that involve near-maximal or maximal loads.
Exercise Technique Fundamentals
Weight Belts
A weight belt is not needed for exercises that do not stress the
lower back or for those that do stress the lower back but involve light loads.
Exercise Technique Fundamentals
Lifting a Bar off the Floor
The position of the feet and back shown in figure 14.3 enables the
leg muscles to make a major contribution as the bar is lifted off the floor.
Exercise Technique Fundamentals
Lifting a Bar off the Floor
Keeping the bar
close to the body and the back flat during the upward pull helps avoid excessive strain on the lower back.
Spotting Free Weight Exercises
Types of Exercises Performed and Equipment Involved
With the exception of power exercises, free weight exercises performed with a bar moving
over the head, positioned on the back, racked on the front of the shoulders, or passing over the face typically require one or more spotters.
Spotting Free Weight Exercises
Types of Exercises Performed and Equipment Involved
Spotting Overhead Exercises and Those With the Bar on the Back or Front Shoulders
Ideally, to promote the safety of the lifter, the spotters, and others nearby, overhead exercises and those involving the bar on the
back or front shoulders should be performed inside a power rack with the crossbars in place at an appropriate height.
Spotting Free Weight Exercises
Types of Exercises Performed and Equipment Involved
Spotting Overhead Exercises and Those With the Bar on the Back or Front Shoulders
Out-of-the-rack exercises (e.g., forward step lunge orstep-up) with heavy weights can result
in serious injury.
Spotting Free Weight Exercises
Types of Exercises Performed and Equipment Involved
Spotting Overhead Exercises and Those With the Bar on the Back or Front Shoulders
These exercises should be executed only by
well-trained and skilled athletes and spotted by experienced professionals.
Spotting Free Weight Exercises
Types of Exercises Performed and Equipment Involved
Spotting Over-the-Face Exercises
When spotting over-the-face barbell exercises, it is important for the spotter to
grasp the bar with an alternated grip, usually narrower than the athlete’s grip.
Spotting Free Weight Exercises
Types of Exercises Performed and Equipment Involved
Spotting Over-the-Face Exercises
Because of the bar’s curved trajectory in some exercises (e.g., lying triceps extension, barbell pullover), the spotter will use an
alternated grip to pick up the bar and return it to the floor but a supinated grip to spot the bar.
Spotting Free Weight Exercises
Types of Exercises Performed and Equipment Involved
Do Not Spot
Power Exercises
Spotting Free Weight Exercises
Number of Spotters Determined by
load and experience and ability of athlete and spottersload and experience and ability of athlete and spotters
Spotting Free Weight Exercises
Communication Between Athlete and Spotter
Use of a Liftoff
Amount and Timing of Spotting Assistance
Joint Biomechanics: Concerns in Resistance Training
Back
Back Injury
The lower back is particularly vulnerable.
Resistance training exercises should generally be performed with the lower back in a moderately arched position.
Joint Biomechanics: Concerns in Resistance Training
Back
Intra-Abdominal Pressure and Lifting Belts
The “fluid ball” aids in supporting the vertebral column during resistance training.
Weightlifting belts are probably effective in improving safety. Follow conservative recommendations.
The “fluid ball” resulting from
contraction of the deep abdominal muscles and the diaphragm.
Valsalva Maneuver:
The glottis is closed, thus keeping air from escaping the lungs, and the muscles of the abdomen and rib cage contract, creating rigid compartments of liquid in the lower torso and air in the upper torso.
Joint Biomechanics:Concerns in Resistance Training
Shoulders
The shoulder is prone to injury during weight training because of its structure and the forces to which it is subjected.
Warm up with relatively light weights.
Follow a program that exercises the shoulders in a balanced way.
Exercise at a controlled speed.
Joint Biomechanics:Concerns in Resistance Training
Knees
The knee is prone to injury because of its location between two long levers.
Minimize the use of wraps.
Joint Biomechanics:Concerns in Resistance Training
How Can Athletes Reduce the Risk of Resistance Training Injuries?
Perform one or more warm-up sets with relatively light weights, particularly for exercises that involve extensive use of the shoulder or knee.
Perform basic exercises through a full ROM.
Use relatively light weights when introducing new exercises or resuming training after a layoff of two or more weeks.
Do not ignore pain in or around the joints.
Never attempt lifting maximal loads without proper preparation, which includes technique instruction in the exercise movement and practice with lighter weights.
Performing several variations of an exercise results in more complete muscle development and joint stability.
Take care when incorporating plyometric drills into a training program.
stretch-shortening cycle (SSC):
Eccentric-concentric coupling phenomenon in which muscle-tendon complexes are rapidly and forcibly lengthened or stretch loaded and immediately shortened in a reactive or elasticmanner; springlike preparatory counter-movement of many functional tasks.
Plyometric Mechanics and Physiology
Mechanical Model of Plyometric Exercise
Elastic energy in tendons and muscles is
increased with a rapid stretch (as in an eccentric muscle action) and then briefly stored.
Plyometric Mechanics and Physiology
Mechanical Model of Plyometric Exercise
If a concentric muscle action follows immediately, the stored energy is
released, contributing to the total force production.
Mechanical model of skeletal muscle function. The series elastic component (SEC), when stretched, stores elastic energy that increases the force produced. The contractile component (CC) (i.e., actin, myosin, and cross-bridges) is the primary source of muscle action during concentric muscle action.
The parallel elastic component (PEC) (i.e., epimysium, perimysium, endomysium, and sarcolemma) exerts a passive force with unstimulated muscle stretch. Reprinted, by permission, from Albert, 1995 (1).
Plyometric Mechanics and Physiology
Neurophysiological Model of Plyometric Exercise
Stretch reflex is the body’s involuntary response to an external stimulus that stretches the muscles.
This model involves potentiation (change in the force–velocity characteristics of the muscle’s contractile components caused by stretch) of the concentric muscle action by use of the stretch reflex.
Plyometric Mechanics and Physiology
Neurophysiological Model of Plyometric Exercise
Stretch reflex is the
body’s involuntary response to an external stimulus that stretches the muscles.
Plyometric Mechanics and Physiology
Stretch-Shortening Cycle
The stretch-shortening cycle (SSC) employs both
the energy storage of the SEC and stimulation of the stretch reflex to facilitate maximal increase in muscle recruitment over a minimal amount of time.
Plyometric Mechanics and Physiology
Stretch-Shortening Cycle
There are three phases:
eccentric, amortization,and concentric.
Plyometric Mechanics and Physiology
Stretch-Shortening Cycle
A fast rate of musculotendinous stretch is vital
to muscle recruitment and activity resulting from the SSC.
Plyometric Mechanics and Physiology
Stretch-Shortening Cycle
Eccentric Stage One Action
Stretch of agonist muscle
Plyometric Mechanics and Physiology
Stretch-Shortening Cycle
Amorization Stage 2 Action
Pause between phases 1 and 3
Plyometric Mechanics and Physiology
Stretch-Shortening Cycle
Concentric Stage 3 Action
Shortening of agonist muscle fibers
Plyometric Mechanics and Physiology
Stretch-Shortening Cycle
Eccentric Stage One
Physiological Event
Elastic energy is stored in the series elastic region.
Muscle Spindles are stimulated.
Plyometric Mechanics and Physiology
Stretch-Shortening Cycle
Amorization Stage 2
Physiological Event
Type Ia afferent nerves synapse with alpha motor neurons.
Alpha motor neurons transmit signals to agonist muscle group.
Plyometric Mechanics and Physiology
Stretch-Shortening Cycle
Concentric Stage 3
Physiological Event
Elastic energy is released from the series elastic region.
Alpha motor neurons stimulate agonist muscle group.
The stretch-shortening cycle combines
mechanical and neurophysiological mechanisms and is the basis of plyometric exercise.
A rapid eccentric muscle action stimulates the
stretch reflex and storage of elastic energy, which increase the force produced during the subsequent concentric action.
Plyometric Program Design
Mode
Lower Body Plyometrics
These are appropriate for virtually any athlete and any sport.
Direction of movement varies by sport, but many sports require athletes to produce maximal vertical or lateral movement in a short amount of time.
There are a wide variety of lower body drills with various intensity levels and directional movements.
Plyometric Program Design
Mode
Upper Body Plyometrics
Drills include
medicine ball throws, catches, and several types of push-ups.
Plyometric Program Design
Mode
Trunk Plyometrics
Exercises for the trunk may be performed “plyometrically” provided that movement modifications are made.
Specifically, the exercise movements must be shorter and quicker to allow stimulation and use of the stretch reflex.
Plyometric Program Design
Intensity
Plyometric intensity refers to the amount of stress placed on muscles, connective tissues, and joints.
It is controlled primarily by the type of plyometric drill.
Generally, as intensity increases, volume should decrease.
Plyometric Program Design
Frequency
Forty-eight to 72 hours between
plyometric sessions is a typical recovery time guideline for prescribing plyometrics.
Using these typical recovery times, athletes commonly perform two to four plyometric sessions per week.
Plyometric Program Design
Recovery
Recovery for depth jumps may consist of
5 to 10 seconds of rest between repetitions and 2 to 3 minutes between sets.
The time between sets is determined by a proper work-to-rest ratio (i.e., 1:5 to 1:10) and is specific to the volume and type of drill being performed.
Drills should not be thought of as cardiorespiratory conditioning exercises but as power training.
Furthermore, drills for a given body area should not be performed two days in succession.
Plyometric Program Design
Volume
For lower body drills
, plyometric volume is expressed as contacts per workout (or in distance for bounding drills).
For upper body drills, plyometric volume is ex-pressed as the number of throws or catches per workout.
Recommended lower body volumes vary for athletes with different levels of experience.
Program Length
Currently, most programs range from
6 to 10 weeks; however, vertical jump height improves as quickly as four weeks after the start of a plyometric training program.
Progression
Plyometrics is a form of resistance training and
thus must follow the principles of progressive overload (the systematic increase in training frequency, volume, and intensity in various combinations).
Warm-Up
Plyometric exercise sessions must begin
with a general warm-up, stretching, and a specific warm-up.
The specific warm-up should consist of low-intensity, dynamic movements.
Plyometrics Age Considerations
Adolescents
Consider both physical and emotional maturity.
The primary goal is to develop neuromuscular control and anaerobic skills that will carry over into adult athletic participation.
Gradually progress from simple to complex.
The recovery time between workouts should be a minimum of two to three days.
Plyometrics Age Considerations
Masters
The plyometric program should include no more than five low- to moderate-intensity exercises.
The volume should be lower, that is, should include fewer total foot contacts than a standard plyometric training program.
The recovery time between plyometric workouts should be three to four days.
Plyometrics Age Considerations
Prepubescent children should not
perform depth jumps and other high-intensity lower body drills. Adolescents usually can safely participate in plyometric training depending on their ability to follow directions.
Masters athletes can do
plyometrics, as long as modifications are made for orthopedic conditions and joint degeneration.
Plyometrics and OtherForms of Exercise
Because aerobic exercise may have a
negative effect on power production, it is advisable to perform plyometric exercise before aerobic endurance training.
Plyometrics and OtherForms of Exercise
Combine lower body resistance training
with upper body plyometrics, and upper body resistance training with lower body plyometrics.
Performing heavy resistance training and plyometric exercises on the same day is generally not recommended.
Some advanced athletes may benefit from complex training, which combines intense resistance training with plyometric exercises.
Plyometrics Safety Considerations Pretraining Evaluation of the Athlete Technique Before adding any drill, the strength and conditioning professional must demonstrate
proper technique to the athlete.
Proper landing technique is essential to prevent injury and improve performance in lower body plyometrics.
Plyometrics Safety Considerations Pretraining Evaluation of the Athlete Strength For lower body plyometrics, the
athlete’s 1RM squat should be at least 1.5 times his or her body weight.
For upper body plyometrics, the bench press 1RM should be at least 1.0 times the body weight for larger athletes (those weighing over 220 pounds, or 100 kg) and at least 1.5 times the body weight for smaller athletes (those weighing less than 220 pounds).
An alternative measure of prerequisite upper body strength is the ability to perform five clap push-ups in a row.
Plyometrics
Safety Considerations
Pretraining Evaluation of the Athlete
Speed
For lower body plyometrics, the athlete should be able to perform five repetitions of the squat with 60% body weight in 5 seconds or less.
For upper body plyometrics, the athlete should be able to perform five repetitions of the bench press with 60% body weight in 5 seconds or less
Plyometrics
Safety Considerations
Pretraining Evaluation of the Athlete
Balance
Three balance tests: double leg/single leg standing quarter squat half squat.
Each test position must be held for 30 seconds. Tests should be performed on the same surface used for drills.
An athlete beginning plyometric training for the first time must stand on one leg for 30 seconds without falling.
An athlete beginning an advanced plyometric program must maintain a single-leg half squat for 30 seconds without falling.
Plyometrics
Safety Considerations
Pretraining Evaluation of the Athlete
Physical Characteristics
Athletes who weigh more than 220 pounds (100 kg) may be at an increased risk for injury when performing plyometric exercises.
- These athletes should not perform depth jumps from heights greater than 18 inches (46 cm).
Plyometrics
Safety Considerations
Pretraining Evaluation of the Athlete
Equipment and Facilities
Landing Surface
To prevent injuries, the landing surface used for lower body plyometrics must possess adequate shock-absorbing properties (grass field, suspended floor, or rubber mat).
Plyometrics Safety Considerations Pretraining Evaluation of the Athlete Equipment and Facilities Training Area
Most bounding and running drills require at least 30 m (33 yards) of straightaway, though some drills may require a straightaway of 100 m (109 yards).
For most standing, box, and depth jumps, only a minimal surface area is needed, but the ceiling height must be 3 to 4 m (9.8-13.1 feet) in order to be adequate.
Equipment
Boxes should range in height from 6 to 42 inches
- The recommended height for depth jumps ranges from 16 to 42 inches, with 30 to 32 inches being the norm.
Plyometrics
Safety Considerations
Pretraining Evaluation of the Athlete
What Are the Steps for Implementing a Plyometric Program?
Evaluate the athlete. Ensure that facilities and equipment are safe. Establish sport-specific goals. Determine program design variables. Teach the athlete proper technique. Properly progress the program.
speed:
The skills and abilities needed to achieve high movement velocities.
agility:
The skills and abilities needed to explosively change movement velocities or modes.
Movement techniques involve
task-specific application of forces that are manifested in terms of acceleration, time or rate of application, and velocity.
Strength and conditioning professionals should identify the target activity’s requisite
skills, abilities, and movement mechanics via task analysis and specifically address them in training.
Movement Mechanics
In order to execute movement techniques, athletes must skillfully
apply force—the product of mass and acceleration.
Movement Mechanics
Impulse
Impulse is the change in momentum resulting from a force, measured as the product of force and time.
Movement Mechanics
Impulse
A basic objective of training is to move the
force-time curve up and to the left, generating greater impulse and momentum during the limited time for which force is applied.
Movement Mechanics
Power
Power is the rate of doing work, measured as the product of force and velocity.
Movement Mechanics
Power
High power outputs are required to
rapidly accelerate, decelerate, or achieve high velocities.
Force as a function of time, indicating
maximum strength, rate of force development (RFD), and force at 0.2 seconds for untrained (solid blue line), heavy resistance–trained (dashed purple line), and explosive-ballistic–trained (dotted black line) subjects. Impulse is the change in momentum resulting from a force, measured as the product of force and time (represented by the area under each curve), and is increased by improving RFD. When functional movements are performed, force is typically applied very briefly, that is, often for 0.1 to 0.2 seconds, whereas absolute maximum force development may require 0.6 to 0.8 seconds.
Velocity as a function of force (dashed purple line) and resulting power production/ absorption (solid blue line)
in concentric and eccentric muscle actions. The greatest forces occur during explosive eccentric (lengthening) actions. Depending on the movement, maximum power (Pm) is usually produced at 30% to 50% of maximum force (Fm) and velocity (Vm).
Athletes skillfully apply forces when
executing movement techniques.
Because of time and velocity constraints, a technique can be characterized in terms of
task-specific impulse and power.
The ability to achieve high movement velocities and accelerations involves high
RFD as well as force application across a range of power outputs and muscle actions.
Movement Mechanics
Practical Implications
Functional vs. Simple Movements
Speed in complex, functional movements involves
an interplay of neuromuscular, mechanical, and energetic factors.
Movement Mechanics
Practical Implications
Functional vs. Simple Movements
Speed in complex movements correlates poorly with
speed in unresisted, elementary actions.
Movement Mechanics
Practical Implications
Functional vs. Simple Movements
Many functional tasks begin with
preparatory countermovements and utilize the stretch-shortening cycle (SSC).
Movement Mechanics
Practical Implications
Functional vs. Simple Movements
Training activities aimed at improving SSC performance should fulfill two criteria:
1) They should involve skillful, muiltijoint movements that transmit forces through the kinetic chain and exploit elastic-reflexive mechanisms.
2) In order to manage fatigue and emphasize work quality and technique, they should be structured around brief work bouts or clusters separated by frequent rest pauses.
Movement Mechanics
Practical Implications
Aerobic Endurance vs. Power Sports
Explosive strength qualities also play an important role in
aerobic endurance activities, such as distance running.
Movement Mechanics
Practical Implications
Aerobic Endurance vs. Power Sports
Ground contact times at intermediate running speeds are longer than those at
top speeds but significantly shorter than required for maximal force development.
Movement Mechanics
Practical Implications
Aerobic Endurance vs. Power Sports
Power, impulse, and reactive ability are important determinants of
running performance over any distance.
Stretch-shortening cycle actions are especially prevalent
in athletic tasks.
The target activity’s movement mechanics have important implications in
training and should be addressed in the task analysis.
Running speed is the interaction of
stride frequency and stride length.
Stride frequency tends to vary among individuals and generally seems to be
more trainable than stride length.
Stride length-frequency interaction as a function
of running velocity. m/s = meters per second
Running Speed
Sprinting Performance and Stride Analysis
Linear sprinting involves a series of
subtasks—the start and acceleration and maximum velocity.
Running Speed
Sprinting Performance and Stride Analysis
Linear sprinting involves a series of subtasks—the start and acceleration and maximum velocity.
Though the movement mechanics of these subtasks are distinct, both are characterized by two phases:
Flight (recovery, ground preparation)
Support (braking, propulsion)
Running Speed
Sprinting Performance and Stride Analysis
Following is a summary of the key muscular requirements in maximum-velocity sprinting:
As the recovery leg swings forward, eccentric knee flexor activity controls its forward momentum and helps prepare for efficient touchdown.
During ground support, the high moment at the ankle joint indicates the importance of the plantar flexors.
According to the available evidence, effort during the late support phase neither is essential to sprinting efficiency nor poses a high risk for injury.
As the recovery leg swings forward,
eccentric knee flexor activity controls its forward momentum and helps prepare for efficient touchdown.
During ground support, the high moment at
the ankle joint indicates the importance of the plantar flexors.
According to the available evidence, effort during the late support phase neither is
essential to sprinting efficiency nor poses a high risk for injury.
Running is a ballistic mode of locomotion with alternating phases of
flight (composed of recovery and ground preparation) and single-leg support (composed of eccentric braking and concentric propulsion).
Running Speed
What are the Training Goals?
Minimize braking forces at ground contact by maximizing the backward velocity of the leg and foot at touchdown and by planting the foot directly beneath the center of gravity.
Emphasize brief ground support times as a means of achieving rapid stride rate.
Emphasize functional training of the hamstring muscle group with respect to its bi-articular structure and dual role (simultaneous concentric hip extension and eccentric knee flexion) during late recovery.
Eccentric knee flexor strength is the most important aspect limiting recovery of the leg as it swings forward.
Running speed is the interaction of stride
frequency and stride length.
The goal of sprinting is to achieve
high stride frequency and optimal stride length, with explosive horizontal push-off and minimal vertical impulse.
Agility is an expression of an athlete’s
coordinative abilities, which are the basis of acceleration, maximum-velocity, and multidirectional skills.
Agility is often broadly defined as an athlete’s collective coordinative abilities:
adaptive ability
balance
combinatory ability
rhythm:
reactiveness:
orientation:
differentiation:
adaptive ability:
Modification of action sequence upon observation or anticipation of novel or changing conditions and situations.
balance:
Static and dynamic equilibrium.
combinatory ability:
Coordination of body movements into a given action.
differentiation:
Accurate, economical adjustment of body movements and mechanics.
orientation:
Spatial and temporal control of body movements.
reactiveness:
Quick, well-directed response to stimuli.
rhythm:
Observation and implementation of dynamic motion pattern, timing, and variation.
Agility is an expression of an athlete’s
coordinative abilities, which are the basis of acceleration, maximum-velocity, and multidirectional skills.
Agility
Skill Classification
General vs. Special Skills
Closed vs. Open Skills
Continuous vs. Discrete vs. Serial Skills
Agility
Change in Velocity
Initial speed and direction
Decrease or increase in speed (or both) and redirection of movement
Final speed and direction
Agility
Locomotion Mode
The specific locomotion mode(s) performed andthe movement technique(s) used to execute them discretely
Forward, Backward, Diagonal, Lateral, or any combination of these
The specific sequence(s) in which they are performed and the technique(s) used to transition between them serially
The available evidence suggests that backpedal running
is a distinct technique rather than a simple reversal of forward running.
Athletes’ maximal backward running velocities tend to be
~60% to 80% of their forward velocities.
Agility
Technical Considerations
Linear sprinting can be described as a closed, serial task:
Velocity and Mode
Agility
Technical Considerations
Linear sprinting can be described as a closed, serial task:
Velocity:
the athlete starts with an initial speed of zero, maximally accelerates forward, and achieves maximum speed over a specified distance (e.g., 100 m) with minimal deceleration or redirection.
Agility
Technical Considerations
Linear sprinting can be described as a closed, serial task:
Mode:
the athlete runs forward by executing a series of discrete subtasks (start, acceleration, maximum velocity) without transitioning to another mode of locomotion.
Technical Considerations
Certain sprinting mechanics—including
body position, visual focus, leg action, arm action, and braking mechanics—can be adapted to various multidirectional tasks.
Agility
Technical Considerations
Considering the forces involved in
explosive deceleration and the role of SSC actions in redirection, some principles of plyometric training are also applicable.
Agility
Technical Considerations
Body Position
Visual Focus
Leg Action
Arm Action
Agility
Technical Considerations
Braking Mechanics
Following is an example of how to progressively develop and evaluate eccentric strength and reactive ability:
Instruct the athlete to run forward and achieve second gear (1/2 speed), and then decelerate and stop within three steps.
Instruct the athlete to run forward and achieve third gear(3/4 speed), and then decelerate and stop within five steps.
Instruct the athlete to run forward and achieve fourth gear (full speed), and then decelerate and stop within seven steps.
Strength and conditioning professionals can simplify the agility needs
analysis by addressing task specificity on two fronts (change in velocity, mode of locomotion) and classifying motor skills according to basic schemes (general vs. special tasks, closed vs. open tasks, continuous vs. discrete vs. serial tasks).
Methods of Developing Speed and Agility
Primary Method
The primary method is the
execution of sound movement technique in a specific task.
Methods of Developing Speed and Agility
Primary Method
Initially, athletes should perform tasks at
submaximal learning speeds to establish proper mechanics.
Methods of Developing Speed and Agility
Primary Method
As they progress toward mastery, task performance can
approach or exceed full competition speed.
Methods of Developing Speed and Agility
Secondary Methods
Sprint Resistance
This method includes
gravity-resisted running (e.g., upgrade or upstair sprinting) or other means of achieving an overload effect (e.g., harness, parachute, sled, or weighted vest).
Methods of Developing Speed and Agility
Secondary Methods
Sprint Resistance
The objective is to provide resistance without
arresting the athlete’s movement mechanics, primarily as a means of improving explosive strength and stride length.
Methods of Developing Speed and Agility
Secondary Methods
Sprint Assistance
This method includes
gravity-assisted running (e.g., down-grade sprinting on a shallow [3-7] slope), high-speed towing (e.g., harness and stretch cord), or other means of achieving an overspeed effect.
Methods of Developing Speed and Agility
Secondary Methods
Sprint Assistance
The objective is to provide assistance without
significantly altering the athlete’s movement mechanics, primarily as a means of improving stride rate.
Methods of Developing Speed and Agility
Tertiary Methods
Mobility
Inadequate ROM for a specific task can result in
improper foot placement, longer ground times, and higher braking forces.
Methods of Developing Speed and Agility
Tertiary Methods
Mobility
Identify limitations due to
flexibility, and address them in training.
Methods of Developing Speed and Agility
Tertiary Methods
Mobility
Strength
Prioritize strength training tasks by their
dynamic correspondence with the target activity.
Methods of Developing Speed and Agility
Tertiary Methods
Mobility
Strength
SSC actions usually deserve high priority in
speed and agility training.
Methods of Developing Speed and Agility
Tertiary Methods
Mobility
Last one?
speed endurance
The primary method for speed and agility development
is execution of sound movement technique in a specific task.
Secondary methods include
sprint resistance and sprint assistance training.
Tertiary methods include
mobility, strength, and speed-endurance training.
Program Design
Short-Term Planning
Speed and Agility Sessions
Athletes should conduct
speed and agility tasks early in a training session.
Program Design
Short-Term Planning
Speed and Agility Sessions
Structure training sessions around brief
work bouts and frequent 2- to 3-minute rest periods in order to maximize the quality of learning and training effects.
Program Design
Short-Term Planning
Speed and Agility Sessions
Repetition methods are an ideal choice in this case, whereas
competitive-trial and interval methods are generally better suited for speed-endurance training.
Program Design
Short-Term Planning
Speed and Agility Sessions
Distribute daily sessions into modules separated by
recovery breaks, subdivide workloads into brief clusters separated by frequent rest pauses, or both.
Short-Term Planning
Speed-Endurance Sessions
Interval training methods often produce the
best chronic training effects for intensive sports.
Short-Term Planning
Speed-Endurance Sessions
A given volume of preparatory speed-endurance work can
be divided into segments, with rest pauses as needed.
Short-Term Planning
Speed-Endurance Sessions
Motor Learning Guidelines
Physical vs. mental practice Amount of practice Whole vs. part practice Augmented feedback and instruction Practice distribution Practice variation
Factors Related to AerobicEndurance Performance
Maximal Aerobic Power
As the duration of an aerobic endurance event
increases, so does the proportion of the total energy that must be supplied by aerobic metabolism.
Factors Related to AerobicEndurance Performance
Maximal Aerobic Power
There is a high correlation between
VO2max and performance in aerobic endurance events.
Factors Related to AerobicEndurance Performance
Lactate Threshold
In aerobic endurance events, the best competitor among athletes with similar VO2max values is typically the person who can
sustain aerobic energy production at the highest percentage of his or her VO2max without accumulating large amounts of lactic acid in the muscle and blood.
Factors Related to AerobicEndurance Performance
Exercise Economy
An improvement in exercise economy can
enhance maximal aerobic power (VO2max) and lactate threshold.
Factors Related to AerobicEndurance Performance
Exercise Economy
A measure of the energy cost of activity at a given exercise velocity is
referred to as the exercise economy.
Designing an AerobicEndurance Program
Step 1: Exercise Mode
Exercise mode is the
specific activity performed by the athlete: cycling, running, swimming, and so on.
Designing an AerobicEndurance Program
Step 1: exercise mode
Remember that the more specific the training mode is to the sport, the
greater the improvementin performance.
Designing an Aerobic Endurance Program
Step 2: Training Frequency
Training frequency is
the number of training sessions conducted per day or per week.
Designing an Aerobic Endurance Program
Step 2: Training Frequency
The frequency of training sessions will depend on
the interaction of exercise intensity and duration, the training status of the athlete, and the specific sport season.
Designing an Aerobic Endurance Program
Step 3: Training Intensity
Adaptations in the body are specific to the
intensity of the training session.
Designing an Aerobic Endurance Program
Step 3: Training Intensity
High-intensity aerobic exercise
increases cardio-vascular and respiratory function and allows for improved oxygen delivery to the working muscles.
Designing an Aerobic Endurance Program
Step 3: Training Intensity
Increasing exercise intensity may also benefit
skeletal muscle adaptations by affecting muscle fiber recruitment.
Designing an Aerobic Endurance Program
Step 3: Training Intensity
Heart Rate
The most frequently used method
for prescribing aerobic exercise intensity
Designing an Aerobic Endurance Program
Step 3: Training Intensity
Target Heart Rate Calculations
Karvonen Method
Age-predicted maximum heart rate (APMHR) = 220 – age
Heart rate reserve (HRR) = APMHR – resting heart rate (RHR)
Target heart rate (THR) = (HRR × exercise intensity) + RHR
Do this calculation twice to determine the target heart rate range (THRR).
Designing an Aerobic Endurance Program
Target Heart Rate Calculations
Percentage of Maximal Heart Rate Method
Age-predicted maximum heart rate (APMHR) = 220 − age
Target heart rate (THR) = (APMHR × exercise intensity)
Do this calculation twice to determine the target heart rate range (THRR).
Designing an Aerobic Endurance Program
Step 3: Training Intensity
Ratings of Perceived Exertion
Can be used to regulate intensity of aerobic endurance training across changes in fitness level
Typically uses the 15-point Borg scale
May be influenced by external environmental factors
Designing an Aerobic Endurance ProgramStep 3: Training Intensity
Metabolic Equivalents
One MET is equal to 3.5 ml · kg–1 · min–1 of oxygen consumption and is considered the amount of oxygen required by the body at rest.
Designing an Aerobic Endurance Program
Power Measurement
Cyclists may use power-measuring cranks and hubs to regulate exercise intensity.
Metabolic rate is closely related to mechanical power production.
Designing an Aerobic Endurance Program
Step 4: Exercise Duration
Exercise duration is
the length of time of the training session.
Designing an Aerobic Endurance Program
Step 4: Exercise Duration
The duration of a training session is often influenced by
the exercise intensity: the longer the exercise duration, the lower the exercise intensity.
Designing an Aerobic Endurance Program
Step 5: Exercise Progression
Progression of an aerobic endurance program involves increasing the
frequency, intensity, and duration.
Designing an Aerobic Endurance Program
Step 5: Exercise Progression
Frequency, intensity, or duration should not increase by more than
10% each week.
Designing an Aerobic Endurance Program
Step 5: Exercise Progression
When it is not feasible to increase frequency or duration, progression can
occur with intensity manipulation.
Designing an Aerobic Endurance Program
Step 5: Exercise Progression
Progression of intensity should be monitored
to prevent overtraining.
Types of Aerobic EnduranceTraining Programs
Long, Slow Distance Training
Training is longer than
race distance (or 30 minutes to 2 hours) at 70% of VO2max.
Types of Aerobic EnduranceTraining Programs
Long, Slow Distance Training
Adaptations from this exercise include the following:
Enhances the body’s ability to clear lactate
Chronic use of this type of training causes an eventual shift of Type IIx fibers to Type I fibers
Types of Aerobic EnduranceTraining Programs
Long, Slow Distance Training
Intensity is lower than that of
competition, which may be a disadvantage if too much LSD training is used
Types of Aerobic EnduranceTraining Programs
Pace/Tempo Training
Intensity at or slightly above
competition intensity, corresponding to the lactate threshold
Types of Aerobic EnduranceTraining Programs
Pace/Tempo Training
Steady pace/tempo training:
20 to 30 minutes of continuous training at the lactate threshold
Types of Aerobic EnduranceTraining Programs
Pace/Tempo Training
Intermittent pace/tempo training:
Intermittent pace/tempo training: series of shorter intervals with brief recovery periods
Types of Aerobic EnduranceTraining Programs
Pace/Tempo Training
Objectives
Develop a sense of race pace and enhance the body’s ability to sustain exercise at that pace
Improve running economy and increase lactate threshold
Types of Aerobic EnduranceTraining Programs
Interval Training
Exercise at an intensity close
to VO2max for intervals of 3 to 5 minutes. Work:rest ratio shouldbe 1:1.
Types of Aerobic EnduranceTraining Programs
Interval Training
This allows athletes to train at intensities close to
VO2max for a greater amount of time.
Types of Aerobic EnduranceTraining Programs
Interval Training
Method should be used
sparingly, and only when training athletes with a firm aerobic endurance training base.
Types of Aerobic EnduranceTraining Programs
Interval Training
It increases
VO2max and enhances anaerobic metabolism.
Types of Aerobic EnduranceTraining Programs
Repetition Training
Conducted at intensities greater than
VO2max, with work intervals lasting 30-90 seconds
Work:rest ratio is about 1:5
Types of Aerobic EnduranceTraining Programs
Repetition Training
Long recovery periods needed
between sessions
Types of Aerobic EnduranceTraining Programs
Repetition Training
Benefits include
Improved running speed and economy
Increased capacity and tolerance for anaerobic metabolism
Types of Aerobic EnduranceTraining Programs
Fartlek Training
Combines other
methods of training
Types of Aerobic EnduranceTraining Programs
Fartlek Training
Easy running (~70% VO2max) combined with
hillsor short, fast bursts (~85-90% VO2max)
Types of Aerobic EnduranceTraining Programs
Fartlek Training Can be adapted for
cycling and swimming
Types of Aerobic EnduranceTraining Programs
Fartlek Training
Benefits are likely to include
Enhanced VO2max
Increased lactate threshold
Improved running economy and fuel utilization
The various types of training induce different physiological responses. A sound program should incorporate all types of training into the athlete’s
weekly, monthly, and yearly training schedule.
Application of Program Designto Training Seasons
Off-Season (Base Training)
Begin with long duration and low intensity. Gradually increase intensity and, to a lesser extent, duration.
Application of Program Designto Training Seasons
Preseason
Focus on increasing intensity, maintaining or reducing duration, and incorporating all types of training.
Application of Program Designto Training Seasons
In-Season (Competition)
Program should be designed around competition, with low-intensity and short-duration training just before race days.
Application of Program Designto Training Seasons
Postseason (Active Rest)
Focus on recovering from the competitive season while maintaining sufficient fitness.
A sound year-round aerobic endurance training program should be divided into sport seasons with
specific goals and objectives designed to improve performance gradually and progressively.
Special Issues Related to Aerobic Endurance Training
Cross-training
Cross-training is a mode of training that can be used to maintain general conditioning in athletes during periods of reduced training due to injury or during recovery from a training cycle.
Special Issues Related to Aerobic Endurance Training
Detraining
Detraining occurs when the athlete reduces the training duration or intensity or stops training altogether due to a break in the training program, injury, or illness.
In the absence of an appropriate training stimulus, the athlete experiences a loss of the physiological adaptations brought about by training.
Special Issues Related to Aerobic Endurance Training
Tapering
Tapering is the systematic reduction of training duration and intensity combined with an increased emphasis on technique work and nutritional intervention.
The objective of tapering the training regimen is to attain peak performance at the time of competition.
Special Issues Related to Aerobic Endurance Training
Resistance Training
Research is limited, but some data suggest that benefits can be derived from
performing resistance training during aerobic endurance training.
Special Issues Related to Aerobic Endurance Training
Resistance Training
Benefits may include
Improvement in short-term exercise performance
Faster recovery from injuries
Prevention of overuse injuries and reduction of muscle imbalances
It can improve hill climbing, bridging gaps between competitors during breakaways, and the final sprint.
Extreme Conditioning Programs
ECPS
Extreme Conditioning Programs
ECPs are multifaceted, circuit training-like fitness programs using various forms of resistance training and challenging running intervals and repeated body-weight exercises, including plyometrics.
ECPs are characterized by
high-volume aggressive training workouts that use a variety of high-intensity exercises and often timed maximal number of repetitions with short rest periods between sets.
With ECPs what 2 questions should u ask?
Are they effective?
Are they safe?
CrossFit“The Sport of Fitness”
Constantly-varied, high-intensity functional movement
(CF Training Guide, p. 3)
Focus on 10 General Physical Skills
CrossFit participation 400% since 2011
World-Class Fitness
Eat meat and vegetables, nuts and seeds, some fruit, little starch and no sugar. Keep intake to levels that will support exercise but not body fat.
World-Class Fitness Practice and train major lifts:
Practice and train major lifts: Deadlift, clean, squat, presses, C&J, & snatch. Similarly, master the basics of gymnastics, pull-ups, dips, rope climb, push-ups, sit-ups, presses to handstand, pirouettes, flips, splits, and holds. Bike, run, swim, row, etc, hard and fast.
World-Class Fitness
Five or six days per week mix these elements in as many
combinations and patterns as creativity will allow. Routine is the enemy. Keep workouts short and intense.
Regularly learn and play new sports.
Rhabdomyolosis:
A medical condition that may arise when muscle tissue breaks down and the contents of muscle cells are released into the bloodstream. One molecule in particular, myoglobin, is toxic to the kidneys and can cause kidney failure and, in the most severe cases, death. “Rhabdo” has been seen after high intensity exercise.
Positive Characteristics of ECPs
Certain aspects of body composition (e.g., in body fat) and some physical fitness components (e.g., local muscular endurance and cardiovascular capacity) may be enhanced.
Emphasis on supposed “functional” fitness
When performed in group settings, can promote camaraderie and teamwork
Negative Characteristics of ECPs
Appear to particularly violate recognized accepted standards for developing muscular fitness
- lack of periodization, individualization
Participants often end up performing advanced exercises with excessive fatigue and undue injury risk
Exercise sessions can be very competitive
