Evaluation of health and welfare

Question 1

Understanding effects of taxon-specific anatomy and physiology on pharmacokinetic parameters (absorption, distribution, metabolism, elimination)

Answer 1

Carnivores have a more acidic stomach, meaning acidic drugs will be absorbed quicker. Whereas, herbivores have PH neutral stomachs, meaning the same drugs will take longer to be absorbed.
Distribution takes longer in more fatty animals as the drugs can be stored.
Higher metabolism means that the drug will be processed and ready for elimination faster.
Some animals cannot vomit, so elimination relies on excretion.

Question 2

Demonstration of applied knowledge for an exotic animal species using domestic animal model in terms of pharmaceutic administration and pharmacokinetic parameters

Answer 2

IV, SC, IM, needle length, area with least fat if IM

Question 3

Principles of modelling and measurement of pharmacokinetic parameters, including integration of volume of distribution, elimination half-life, and clearance into patient management

Answer 3

Measuring levels in the blood over time and making comparisons to the baselines

Question 4

Identification of parameters for a well-constructed pharmacokinetic study for development of a novel study

Answer 4

Type and timing of samples collected

Recording of times samples collected is more important than consistency

Question 5

Review of allometric principles and the application of them in scaling metabolic and physiologic processes

Answer 5

Relationships between animal size (measured as body mass) and various crucial measurements (including metabolism) do not scale in a linear manner, so that expressing these relationships as %, mg/kg, or similar, is biologically not correct (but maybe convenient)
Allometry considers other factors like ADME depending on internal biology

Question 6

Demonstration of limitations of allometric scaling for pharmaceutical guidance

Answer 6

Lack of research so assumptions on biological processes may be made

Question 7

Discussion of metabolic processes with effect on pharmaceutical metabolism as focused on ectothermic body temperatures

Answer 7

Temperatures outside are likely to change metabolism of the drug in ectotherms

Question 8

What does the topic of reproductive technologies include

Answer 8

techniques directly applied to animal breeding and the treatment of infertility, such as artificial insemination, in vitro fertilization and embryo transfer. However, in a broader sense, the topic includes technologies for contraception and pest control, sperm and embryo freezing, germplasm banking, animal cloning, etc.
Some of these technologies are used in zoos, where the focus is on breeding specific individuals whose genetic value would otherwise be lost. This type of usage can be intensively applied within planned breeding programmes; however, they are not usually efficient enough for use with population management.

Question 9

The multiple uses and applications of contraceptive treatments in zoo and free living wild animals

Answer 9

To maintain genetic diversity, and appropriate population demographics
To prevent overrepresentation, reduce inbreeding, and modify generation length
For modifying inappropriate behaviours, therapeutic management (e.g. endometriosis)

Question 10

The mechanisms of action of the different contraceptive drugs available

Answer 10

Synthetic steroid hormones (progestogens): thicken cervical mucus, interrupt gamete transport, disrupt implantation, inhibit LH surge stopping ovulation (progestogen/oestrogen combination): suppress follicle development and ovulation PLUS as above
GnRH agonists: suppress pituitary- gonadal axis to suppress gonadal hormone release
Immunocontraception: antibodies prevent the attachment of sperm to the ova

Question 11

The holistic approach to the use of contraception: safety and reversibility, monitoring efficacy, research

Answer 11

Are the animals fit for purpose?

Question 12

The approach to diagnosing point of breeding failure/infertility

Answer 12

Identify problem, choose diagnostics, explore treatment options, items and people needed

Question 13

Technological advances in imaging can assist in improving outcomes for captive wild animal reproduction and contraception.

Answer 13

For basic research into anatomy and physiology
As a diagnostic tool to identify and monitor
As a supportive tool for disease treatment and assisted reproduction
Via both non-invasive and invasive techniques (ultrasound vs xray)

Question 14

describe in principle the modified McMaster Method for the recovery of helminth eggs

Answer 14

A clear slide with 2 compartments for samples, where floatation fluid causes eggs to rise to the top of the slide and etched lines help them to be seen

Question 15

describe in principle the Baerman technique for the recovery of helminth larvae

Answer 15

A sample is suspended in water inside a glass funnel with gauze, and larvae move into the water where they sink to the bottom

Question 16

discuss the interpretation of results obtained using these two techniques and appreciate their limitations

Answer 16

Pseudo-parasites can interfere with identification if the person looking does not have knowledge
They do not identify the relative number of the parasites due to differences in fecundity
Presence may not occur in the sample despite being in the host depending on the parasite species, as they may not enter the intestines
They may be at different developmental stages, and therefore not be present in the sample

Question 17

discuss the value of faecal culture

Answer 17

It allows for the identification of the relative number of each parasite.

Question 18

describe in principle how nematode larvae may be recovered from grass samples and subsequently identified

Answer 18

Collect and wash the grass, sieving the contents, and using Baerman or flotation methods

Question 19

describe in principle how nematodes may be recovered from the gastrointestinal and respiratory tracts

Answer 19

They can be flushed out into containers and sieved, followed by use of formalin fix and microscope

Question 20

Define animal welfare and explain how it relates to health and productivity

Answer 20

The physical and mental state of an animal in relation to its conditions (e.g. environment and husbandry)

Question 21

Give examples of common welfare indicators and how they could be used to understand animal welfare

Answer 21

Enclosure assessments to identify whether their needs are being met, and behavioural assessments to identify if the animal is able to cope in the environment

Question 22

Apply knowledge of concepts and frameworks to objectively assess behaviour and welfare-related issues

Answer 22

5 domains: health, environment, behaviour, nutrition, mental state
5 needs: protection from unnecessary pain/suffering, to be housed with or without others, suitable diet, suitable environment, opportunity to exhibit normal behaviours

Question 23

Critically discuss common techniques for testing a species’ cognitive flexibility, taking into account the ‘hard problem of consciousness’

Answer 23

Mirror test – for self-awareness
Deception test – for theory of mind (knowing what others know/don’t know)
Flexible tool use – problem solving with prior knowledge
Counting – concept formation

Question 24

Define cognition and consciousness, and logically argue whether and how they might relate to each other

Answer 24

Cognition is the processing of information
Consciousness is the understanding of thought and experiences
They may be related as consciousness can influence changes in cognition, thus the more complex an animal’s cognition is, this could indicate consciousness

Question 25

Define abnormal repetitive behaviours and explain why it can be difficult to identify them with certainty

Answer 25

Behaviours that have no underlying function and occur at a statistically significant rate with unvarying patterns

Question 26

Evaluate some of the internal and external processes that can lead to their development, including relevant evidence-based examples

Answer 26

Environmental needs that aren’t met can cause frustration, which leads to motivations not being fulfilled and thus the behaviours occur as either a coping mechanism or result of stress or an attempt of the animal trying to fulfil the need themselves (e.g. wall licking in giraffes)

Question 27

Critically discuss the use of abnormal repetitive behaviours as welfare indicators

Answer 27

Can indicate health or environmental issues, although need to remember these may have been learnt previously and thus not reduce immediately after changes

Question 28

Why is allometry used

Answer 28

Relationships between animal size (measured as body mass) and various crucial measurements (including metabolism) do not scale in a linear manner, so that expressing these relationships as %, mg/kg, or similar, is biologically not correct (but maybe convenient)

Question 29

Hemosiderosis is

Answer 29

local or systemic deposition of iron and hemochromatosis is systemic deposition with associated organ damage.
Caused by increased iron absorption
Clinical signs include lethargy and muscle pain.
Diagnosis in live animals is dependent on % transferrin saturation and serum ferritin values. Susceptible species include toucans.

Question 30

Appropriate diets for wild animals in captivity are

Answer 30

dictated by the anatomy and physiology of the gastrointestinal system.
It is important not to disturb the fermentation chamber, where present to ensure health is maintained.
There is no evidence that variety of food is required for good welfare

Question 31

Reptiles - Develop an appropriate diet based on the feeding type

Answer 31

Carnivore – mostly protein and fat, omnivore – half carbohydrate, then protein and fat, herbivore – lots of carbohydrates, small amount of protein and fat

Question 32

Know the reasons for metabolic bone diseases and their clinical manifestation

Answer 32

Calcium and vitamin D deficiencies, low blood calcium leads to hyperparathyroidism so calcium is released from bones
Depression, tremors, soft bones, spontaneous fractures, hard thighs, paralysis of hind legs, scute pyramiding, collapsed carapace, shortness of breath, dystocia

Question 33

Relate energy disorders to health

Answer 33

Weight loss - inadequate food, so body tissue is used to metabolise
Obesity - overfeeding causing build up of fat, leading to lameness and potentially reduced organ function

Question 34

Reptiles - Name the main endoparasites and discuss the diagnostic tests to be used

Answer 34

Amoeba, oxyurids, coccidia, cryptosporidia

Microscopy of fresh faecal sample, flotation/sedimentation, SAF fixation

Question 35

Appreciate the anatomy/physiology of the reptile liver

Answer 35

Arterial, portal, and venous circulation
Hepatocytes, endothelial cells, macrophages, ito cells
Biliary system (canaliculi to gallbladder to common bile duct)
Metabolism varies (egg/hatchling/adult/temperature, hibernation)
Biliverdin rather than bilirubin

Question 36

Appreciate the practical approach to hepatobiliary disease investigation

Answer 36

History of husbandry (e.g. lack of hibernation, lack of reproduction, hepatotoxic drugs)
Nutrition (e.g. hepatotoxins, excess nutrition/obesity)
Physical examination (jaundice/hyperbiliverdinemia, polyuria/polydipsia, coelomic enlargement, anorexia, depression)
Hepatic markers to investigate disease and its effects, radiography for hepatic carcinomas, hematology for leukocytosis, CT scan for hepatic size and shape, ultrasound for displacement or compression or vascular abnormalities.
Coelioscopy (in through abdominal wall incision)
Hepatic biopsy (elevations of liver enzymes, elevated bile acids)

Question 37

Appreciate the anatomy/physiology of reptile kidneys

Answer 37

Paired, paired ureters > urodeum, urethra > large bladder in some spp
Renal portal system (filtration of waste and excess water)
Ammonia, urea, uric acid
Post-renal modification of urine by cloaca/bladder

Question 38

Appreciate the practical approach to renal disease investigation

Answer 38

Unlikely to show clinical signs until 2/3 of function is lost
Decreased activity, decreased appetite, regurgitation, abnormal urine/faeces, increased bathing, polydipsia, polyuria, anuria
Physical examination (body condition, palpation, skin tenting, poor shedding, fluid overload, gout, renal enlargement)
Blood collection BEFORE any treatment
Urinalysis (volume, presence/absence, colour, pH, blood, glucose)
Radiography for size and shape, ultrasound for size and shape, CT for size and shape and lesions
Coelioscopy (in through abdominal wall incision)
Renal biopsy (electrolyte imbalance, toxin build up, blood in urine, masses)

Question 39

Appreciate the routes for delivering medication to reptiles via the topical, oral, and injectable routes

Answer 39

Irrigations, baths, creams, powders - bandaging
Syringe feed, stomach tube (mouth gag, oesophagus tubing)
Oesophagostomy tube
PEG tube (skin to stomach)
SC (slow uptake, useful when muscles is limited)
IM (reliable, smaller volume)
Instracoelomic (slow uptake so use larger volume, or for fluid therapy)
IO (rapid uptake for emergency)
IV (rapid uptake for emergency)
Central IV lines (longer term)

Question 40

The differences in Reproductive lifespan in Asian elephants in modern zoos and in range countries with special reference to calf mortality

Answer 40

Fertility peaks at 20, and calf mortality/stillbirth increases with mother’s age
Male calves have higher mortality risk than female calves
Calf mortality, stillbirths, dystocia etc decreases when welfare is increased