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MSc Wild Animal Biology > Ecosystem Health > Flashcards

Ecosystem Health Flashcards

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1
Q

Recognise the concept of ecosystem health using the example of a lake-based system

A

Ecosystem health is looking at whether an ecosystem is stable and sustainable; maintain its organisation and autonomy over time and its resilience to stress.

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2
Q

Methods to measure ecosystem health

A

Rapport method: measuring vigour (productivity), resilience (ability to maintain structure and function in the presence of stress) and organisation (diversity of interactions)
😊 - Ecosystems are not necessarily stable
😪 - Disrupted ecosystems may still have vigour, organisation, and resilience
Needs + granularity or hierarchy (distribution and interconnectivity of subsystems)
Needs + trajectory (vigour and resilience change over time)

Ecosystem services method: measuring food provision, artisanal fishing opportunity, natural products, carbon storage, tourism and recreation, livelihoods and economies, sense of place, cleanliness biodiversity
😊 Incorporates sustainability into the index

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3
Q

Describe the distribution and ecological niche of coral reefs

A

Coral reefs:

  • Formed by colonies of coral polyps held together by calcium carbonate
  • 25-31oC (limited Northwards by the 18oC minimum isotherm)
  • Salinity of 34-37ppt
  • Light level
  • Predominantly in top 30m of water
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4
Q

Describe the distribution and ecological niche of mangrove forests

A

Mangrove forests:

  • Only in tropical coastal areas
  • highly saline, anoxic substrates
  • low wave action
  • variable inundation and water availability
  • salinity (variable from fresh, to brackish, seawater and even hypersaline)
  • substratum unstable – subject to wind damage
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5
Q

Describe the distribution and ecological niche of seagrass beds

A

Seagrass beds:

  • Found in shallow salty and brackish waters along gently sloping, protected coastlines
  • Depths of 1 to 3 meters, but the deepest growing seagrass (Halophilia decipiens) has been found at depths 58 meters.
  • 72 species - majority in tropics = most diverse, esp. Indonesia.
  • Evolved around 100 million years ago
  • Form dense underwater meadows
  • One of the most productive ecosystems
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6
Q

Describe the distribution and ecological niche of seagrass beds

A

Seagrass beds:

  • Found in shallow salty and brackish waters along gently sloping, protected coastlines
  • Depths of 1 to 3 meters, but the deepest growing seagrass (Halophilia decipiens) has been found at depths 58 meters.
  • 72 species - majority in tropics = most diverse, esp. Indonesia.
  • Evolved around 100 million years ago
  • Form dense underwater meadows
  • One of the most productive ecosystems
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7
Q

Outline the breadth and structure of biodiversity supported by tropical coastal ecosystems

A

A huge variety of species and plays an important role in maintaining food chains.

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8
Q

Identify the ecosystem services provided by coral reefs

A

Reefs:

  • Recreation
  • Tourism
  • Fishing (jobs and food)
  • carbon storage
  • coastal protection
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9
Q

Identify the ecosystem services provided by mangrove forests

A

mangroves:

  • coastal pioneer species
  • buffer between sea and land (lessen impact of storms, reduce erosion and increase sedimentation)
  • food and resources
  • carbon sequestration
  • nursery habitat (protect from predators, high larval retention, high densities of juveniles
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10
Q

Identify the ecosystem services provided by seagrass beds

A

seagrass beds:

  • foundation species or ecosystem engineer
  • support commercial fisheries
  • biodiversity hotspot
  • clean water
  • sequester carbon
  • nursery habitats
  • foundation of food web
  • modify physical environment
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11
Q

Explain the local and global threats to tropical coastal ecosystems

A

Local: pollution, over-fishing, destructive fishing methods, invasive species, coastal development

Global: increases in sea surface temperatures, ocean acidification, increase in storm frequencies, rising sea levels

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12
Q

Describe sustainable use in the context of wildlife

A

The long-term stability or persistence of a wild population whilst providing ecosystem services for humans, such as produce.

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13
Q

Critically analyse arguments for and against sustainable use in different situations

A

Good

  • In SA, ecotourism including sport hunting contributes to more GDP than livestock, crop agriculture and forestry combined.
  • Communities can benefit from jobs and selling produce

Bad

  • Amboseli – decline in biodiversity
  • Mara Serengeti - exclusion of communities and poor benefits leading to increasing tendency for change in land use. Loss of rhinoceros habitat due to lodge construction.
  • Mountain Gorilla – health risks increased to vulnerable isolated metapopulations.
  • Over-exploitation by hunting of antelopes in African arid lands (Arab and European hunters).
  • Corruption by a few key individuals preventing the revenues from tourist hunting being maximised for conservation and community benefit (Africa).
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14
Q

Suggest how veterinarians and biologists can support sustainable use of wildlife resources

A
  • The veterinarian is trained in health sciences and can understand the risk of different human – species interactions in the context of SU (sustainable use) and disease impact of multi-species systems
  • Professional advice and support to CBNRM especially with mixed livestock-wildlife systems.
  • Professional advice and support to wildlife ranching, farming, and harvesting systems.
  • Advise on Policy and Regulations relating to SU, Public Health, Ethics and Welfare.
  • Perceived risks of disease transmission via products of SU and trade.
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15
Q

Be aware of the origins of ecology and the concept of ecosystems

A

Ecology - the scientific study of the interactions that determine the distribution and abundance of organisms

Ecosystem - a group of interacting organisms (usually called a community) and the physical environment they inhabit at a given point in time

Ecosystems can therefore be described in terms of the flux of energy and matter through them. For example, primary plant production can be given as biomass and the energy can be measured with respect to transfer efficiency between different trophic levels.

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16
Q

Know what is meant by ‘biodiversity’ and how it can be measured

A

Species diversity – all the species on earth

Genetic diversity – both within and between populations

Community diversity – the varied biological communities and their association with physical environment

Can be measured by species richness. Other measures include for example a determination of the proportion of each species or biomass of the total within the community

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17
Q

Realise that biodiversity and its loss has implications for ecosystem function and ecosystem services

A

Trophic cascades occur when changes in one link of the food chain occurs, causing changes in the levels below. E.g., losing a predator means that the species below may become more abundant, which will affect numbers of the species below them.

Biodiversity loss reduces the efficiency by which ecological communities capture biologically essential resources, produce biomass, decompose and recycle biologically essential nutrients

Biodiversity increases stability of ecosystem functions through time

Habitats in favourable conservation status provide more biodiversity and a higher potential to provide ecosystem services

Susceptibility to invasion by exotic species decreases with increasing biodiversity – more stable due to having a range of species that respond differently to different environmental perturbations

Diverse communities are more productive because they contain key species that have a large influence on productivity, and differences in functional traits among organisms increase total resource capture

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18
Q

Know what is meant by the ‘dilution effect’ and recognise that biodiversity can influence disease transmission

A

Dilution theory says that increasing biodiversity reduces infection prevalence as host susceptibility and reservoir competence is more varied.

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19
Q

The importance of connectivity between freshwater and marine environments for good ecosystem health for fish

A
  • Foraging
  • Breeding
  • Population dispersal
  • Parasite control (salinity gradient)
  • Different habitat required at different life-stages
  • Refuge i.e. predator avoidance
  • Displacement by natural or anthropogenic drivers
  • Life history strategy to optimise growth and reproduction
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20
Q

Different life history strategies between and within fish species influence the impact of anthropogenic stressors

A

Potadromous – spend whole life in freshwater but need access to different habitats – spawning, feeding etc
Oceanodromous – spend whole life in marine environment often make large scale migrations following food
Diadromous – need connectivity between freshwater and marine systems.

Increased stress & energy expenditure from multiple passage attempts
Increased pathogens from artificially high densities e.g. at barriers
Increased vulnerability to predation and fishing exploitation
Reduced water quality from high densities & modified river flow
Agonistic behaviour may also result in elevated stress, injury, secondary infections
Direct damage and mortality from engineered structures, pumps and turbines

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21
Q

How animal tracking technologies enable fish behaviour, survival and health to be quantified at a range of scales

A

Visual observations, filming, photography – limited by water clarity/light levels BUT relatively small/local scale

Capture sampling –species richness, population dynamics, densities BUT limited/coarse scale data on movement & behaviour, labour intensive

eDNA – species presence/absence from a water sample

Sonar techniques – passive, high resolution, works in wide range of env conditions BUT spatially limited

Mark-recapture & Biologging – invasive but offers opportunity for high resolution & observations of behaviour over large special scales

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22
Q

How research findings are turned into mitigation for anthropogenic impacts

A

They highlight the issues that need to change

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23
Q

How fishing impacts the characteristics of the target species

A

Fishing is size selective resulting in reduction in mean age and size of individuals, increased growth rate, reduced age and size at maturity of individuals in the population

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24
Q

The failure of the MSY principle as a model for estimating quotas

A

• Mortality and reproduction/growth are not entirely independent of each other
• Fluctuate within limits set by abiotic factors – eg. weather
• Biotic factors – eg. competition, predation
Quote set too high? - Catch (yield) exceeds surplus production > extinction
Quota set too low? - If pop is larger than BMSY a stable equilibrium will be reached - If pop is smaller than BMSY the pop will either increase to equilibrium or crash
Perfect quota (MSY estimated perfectly)? - If pop is initially larger than BMSY it will stabilise at BMSY If pop is initially smaller than BMSY the surplus production will always be less than the quota and the pop will crash

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25
Q

Recruitment variability and density dependent effects within a population (depensation, allee effect) as major factors that complicate the accurate estimation of a sustainable fisheries yield (a sustainable level of fishing).

A 
A few year classes = most of the biomass, even though all present 
One year class will contribute to catch for several years (Norwegian Herring/Hjort)
Year class success or failure determined during first months of life
Recruitment varies by factor of 20 between year classes > effect on the fishery

All spawner-recruit models show compensation in numbers of recruits per spawner at low population densities
Possibility 1: density dependent factors mean lower numbers of spawners = higher recruitment. This means that the rate of increase of a stock is highest at the lower spawner abundance.
Possibility 2: number of recruits per spawner decreases at low population densities. This situation is an inverse density dependence and is known as the Allee Effect or depensation. It can lead to unpredictable collapse of fisheries and an inability of overexploited populations to recover.

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26
Q

The physical impacts of fishing on the benthic environment

A

Reduction in 3 dimensional complexity of habitat because of removal of epifauna, biogenic structures and destruction of microtopography

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27
Q

The concepts of bycatch and discards.

A

Non targeted organisms highly impacted by fisheries with ecosystem-level effects
Discarded Catch - That portion of the catch returned to the sea as a result of economic, legal, or personal considerations
Bycatch - Discarded catch plus incidental catch

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28
Q

Environmental variability is…

A

inexorably linked with fisheries dynamics and resilience differs between environments, environmental conditions, gear, and taxa

  • Fishing is size selective and species selective
  • Recruitment variability, density-dependent effects, shifts in stable state
  • Habitat damage (incidental mortality and reduction in 3D habitat)
  • Bycatch (incidental mortality)
  • Interaction with climactic variation
  • Fishing down the foodweb (decline in mean trophic level)
  • Altered ecosystem structure and function
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29
Q

Gain an understanding of how successful conservation initiatives rely on supportive human behaviour

A

To tackle the issues directly, conservation initiatives must incorporate human behaviour changes. This requires helping people to overcome barriers and make the behaviour changes that are needed both practical and achievable.

  • Public awareness
  • Education
  • Social Marketing
  • Behaviour change models
  • Citizen science
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30
Q

Explain how understanding people’s knowledge, attitude and practices has been important to inform conservation strategies

A

Understanding these aspects means we can make specific conservation strategies better suited to the situation.

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31
Q

Give examples of how tackling barriers to behaviour change results in positive conservation outcomes

A

Our sea our life – established locally-managed marine areas with communities to increase biomass and biodiversity, resulting in bigger catches for higher income. Also encouraged households to engage in village savings and loan associations to diversify livelihoods and reduce dependence on fisheries.

32
Q

Describe a selection of natural seaweed habitats and identify their importance to their local ecosystems

A

Kelp habitats - They form an underwater forest in temperate, sub-tropical, and sub-polar areas at depths from 1-200m. They are important for fisheries (nursery sites), harvesting (chemical and biofuel), nutrient cycling (pollution uptake), carbon sequestration, coastal protection, and tourism.

Maerl beds – calcifying red algae making a branchy, rocky structure in polar to tropical areas at depths of down to 200m. They provide a 3D hard-substrate microhabitat for a high diversity of associated invertebrates and algae.

33
Q

Identify threats to seaweed habitats and assess their impact

A

Kelp habitats - Threats include warming, heat waves, storms, epiphytism, pollution, eutrophication, species invasion, and harvesting.

Maerl beds – Threats include acidification, warming, harvesting for agriculture, pollution, and damage from fishing.

34
Q

Describe seaweed farming methods and identify the ways these impact their local environment

A

Uses – food, industrial/cosmetic/medical chemicals, animal feed, fertiliser, water purification, probiotics, and bioethanol.
Methods – typically a rope-based system. Grow in hatcheries before transferring them onto ropes planted in the wild that are harvested later on.
Impacts – diseases and pests, declining yields (to do with genetic diversity?), wild harvesting,

35
Q

Describe methods for monitoring seaweed habitats and determine their appropriateness in relation to threats

A

Expert survey – shore surveys and diving for a direct observation of species in their habitat and sample collections. Although this is time consuming, expensive, and dangerous.
Using existing data – observations + environmental data = predicted distribution which can be useful. Although, it can’t be used for monitoring and there are many uncertainties for predictions.
Camera and non-expert surveys – larger surveys that are resource efficient, although identifications may be difficult and unreliable.
Remote sensing – satellites/planes/drones/ships. Spectral profile can classify habitats and monitor subtidal habitats (shallow water). Although it may be affected by bad weather and murky water, and there may be a depth limit to optical sensors used.

36
Q

As a result of attending this lecture students will gain an understanding of historical contexts shaping contemporary regulation of human and zoonotic tuberculosis in the UK and globally.

A

It has been difficult to understand and gain reliable knowledge about TB, meaning that social regulations have been difficult to put in place. TB was seen as a disease of poverty, caused by malnutrition and poor living conditions, and following this, it was unknown whether TB was a disease of humans or animals.
It was then discovered that bovine TB was different to the initial TB found. For many years, the zoonoses aspect was not understood, with varying conclusions from experiments.
It was eventually decided that it was zoonotic. The BCG vaccine was developed and started being used in the 1920s although it was around 1940s-50s where there were global campaigns.

37
Q

As a result of attending this lecture students will gain an understanding of basic research methods for investigating social and policy aspects of wildlife health; and develop insights into how changing human-animal relations have shaped the bTB problem, including how the issue might be approached more productively in the future.

A

Methods - surveys, interviews, text analysis, changes over time – needs consent, and active participation. Qualitative/quantitative.
Good badgers vs bad badgers – anthropomorphism vs pests. Science-policy-social dynamics.
Politics and cultural shifts.
Improving – human-wildlife conflict, explore new technology (testing/vaccines), wider politics and public opinions, citizen science.

38
Q

Detailed epidemiological investigations show that the relationship between Mycobacterium bovis infection in badgers and cattle is complex

A

Badger-badger, cattle-cattle, badger-cattle and cattle-badger transmission is possible.
Percentage of badgers culled, and their ongoing population numbers can be recorded and compared to TB cases in cattle to track trends over time.
Badger culling changes their behaviour, impacting the transmission of TB to cattle. Less badgers don’t equal less disease.

39
Q

Mitigation methods which target badger control may increase the prevalence of infection in cattle because of a perturbation effect.

A

Culling results in fewer badgers, however the remaining badgers are more infectious and their range increases. The incidence of confirmed cattle TB increases with culling.
Vaccination and movement controls may be better.

40
Q

Be able to discriminate between different types of marine biotelemetry technologies, recognising passive and active sensors and the contexts they are likely to be used in.

A

Radio telemetry: Passive integrated transponder tag, radio frequency id, low frequency. Inert until they get passed over an electromagnetic wave made by a tag reader and pick up the wave responding to the reader.
😊 Very cheap, very small, used over a lifetime
☹ Distance to use is less than 1m

Acoustic transmitter: hydrophones on seabed or surface platforms which give a cone view to detect small acoustic transmitters, passive.
😊 From 6g to 11g so quite light, can be internally or externally deployed on fish, accuracy is under 1km
☹ Kind of expensive

Archival loggers: passive tags externally attached to animals to log a high resolution depth, pressure, temp, and light levels.
😊 Very light, can be configured to record at high and low resolutions which changes battery life. Error is VERY LOW
☹ Can be expensive

Satellite: Active transmitter put on large dorsal fins and rely on ARGOS network.
😊 Very precise estimates
☹ Very expensive and the species must surface at times for recordings

GPS tags: a radio receiver that picks up signals on satellites, glued onto surface of animal
😊 Very small, can find cheap ones, can be programmed on a cycle or set to always recording, error is very low
☹ Can be expensive for bigger ones

41
Q

Think critically about why some technologies are more appropriate/feasible than others for specific research questions and species.

A

Depends on the type of animal, what type of data you want, what variables you’re looking at, how long you want to use it for.

42
Q

Be able to recognise and evaluate the financial, ethical and logistical trade-offs of different tracking techniques and be able to argue for and against the use of different techniques for different spatial and temporal scales.

A

consider:

  • cost
    satellite transmitters are the most expensive
  • weight (5% rule)
    satellite transmitters are the heaviest
  • recovery of data
    no need with radio and satellite transmitters, PAT tags and PIT
    Generally needed with GPS, archival loggers and acoustic transmitters if remote download is not present (increases cost)
  • type of data needed
43
Q

The four basic tag types for monitoring animal locations are: radio; satellite; GPS and solar geolocation. The key features of tag each type, i.e. limitations, benefits and costs.

A

Radio transmitter: radio signal and VHF receiver. Size depends on battery life.
😊 Variety of sizes and formats (collars/harnesses/glue-on), tags themselves are cheap
☹ Aerials are expensive and error testing is needed

Satellite: Active transmitter put on large dorsal fins and rely on ARGOS network.
😊 Very precise estimates
☹ Very expensive

GPS tags: a radio receiver that picks up signals on satellites, glued onto surface of animal.
😊 Very small, can find cheap ones, can be programmed on a cycle or set to always recording, error is very low
☹ Can be expensive for bigger ones

Solar geolocation: records of light levels.
😊 Very light and small, cheap, and long-lasting battery (around 60 months)
☹ Very higher error

44
Q

The need for clear tagging objectives at the start of any program to help identify suitable tags, deployment techniques and sampling strategies.

A

Depends on the type of animal, what type of data you want, what variables you’re looking at, how long you want to use it for.

45
Q

The recommendation for a pilot study if no precedent is available.

A
46
Q

Know which anaesthetic drugs are used and be familiar with the various stages of anaesthesia in fish

A

Tricaine, Benzocaine, 2-phenoxyethanol, Clove oil
Efficacy depends on species differences, water temperature, body weight, heath statues, body condition and lipid content, water salinity, pH and calcium
Stage 0 = normal = swimming and reactive
Stage I = sedation = reduced responses
Stage II = anaesthesia = lost balance
Stage III = surgical anaesthesia = no pain
Stage IV = medullary collapse = dead

47
Q

Be aware of humane methods for euthanasia of fish

A

Anaesthetic overdose and cervical transection or pentobarbitone (IV/IC)
Stunning and exsanguination
Decapitation and pithing (only small fish)

48
Q

Be able to perform a clinical examination of fish and take the samples used in routine disease investigations

A
  1. visual examination
  2. water quality tests
  3. skin/gill biopsy
  4. pm
  5. histo

Examine all body features for normal structures and any lesions:

  • Mouth (jaw ± teeth, buccal flap)
  • Nostrils (structure)
  • Eyes
  • Gill space (4 gill arches, rakers, lamellae, pseudobranch, veins)
  • Skin (location of scales+ lateral line)
  • Fins (pectoral, pelvic, anal, caudal, dorsal) (soft & bony rays)
  • Palpate abdomen (note rib location)
  • Vent (combined urinary, rectal, gonadal orifices)
  1. Take scrapes from skin & gills and examine
  2. Collect faecal sample
  3. Take fin snip (if lesions present)
  4. Collect blood sample from caudal vein (note clotting time)
49
Q

The diversity of parasitic infestations, malign and benign, termed myiasis; Examples from wildlife will be used where appropriate.

A

“the infestation of live vertebrate animals with dipterous larvae, which, at least for a certain period, feed on the host’s dead or living tissue, liquid body substances, or ingested food”.

Malign: when the obligate and primary species attack the host’s healthy tissues.
Benign: when secondary species confine their activities to diseased and dead tissue.
Host-parasite relationships vary depending on:
- Sites of egg or larva deposition (on/off host)
- Sites of final infestation (dermal/sub-dermal)
- Durations of infestation (days – weeks – months)
- Pathology of infestation (depends on site, duration, abundance, tissue damage, toxicity, immune response)

50
Q

The variety of parasitic life cycles, pathologies and host associations of the three major groups of myiasis causing flies.

A

Most lay eggs in warm, moist environments, which then hatch and feed on tissue as larvae or adults.
Host association types:
- Accidental (ingestion)
- Facultative (develop on dead and live hosts)
- Obligate (can only develop on live hosts)

Three major groups of myiasis causing flies:

  • Oestridae: Warble flies + bot flies (all obligate, respiratory tract/alimentary tract/cutaneous) - do not feed as adults
  • Calliphoridae: Blow flies (obligate or facultative and all feed as adults, cutaneous)
  • Sarcophagidae: Flesh flies (obligate or facultative and all feed as adults, cutaneous)
51
Q

Methods for diagnosis of myiasis (parasite identification) and control.

A

Identification: collect samples and compare it to a key available at the natural history museum. The identification key allows you to select which characters to examine and in which order to examine them.
Three methods of control:
1. Control or eradication of fly population (Sterile Insect Technique, trapping, insecticide treatments)
2. Avoidance of infestation where adult control is not possible (fly screening, dressing wounds, prophylaxis, vaccines?)
3. Treatment of infestation because of failure of both the above levels (removal of larvae manually or by insecticides, lavage, debridement and application of antibiotics)

52
Q

understand the scale, magnitude, and consequences of secondary exposure, and how these are determined by the interplay between toxicology and ecology

A
  • UK large-scale use of SGARs
  • Used on 80-90% of farms, millions lethal doses/yr
  • Primary poisoning of non-targets
  • Secondary poisoning of predatory birds and mammals, (some rare/protected) and possible impacts on populations
53
Q

explore the scientific approaches [and their uncertainties] used to quantify exposure and effect of rodenticides

A

Experimental studies and WIIS data have demonstrated mortality but true level unknown
No evidence to date that exposed predator species have suffered population declines – some limited primary exposure effects
• Diagnosis subjective, can be contentious:
• Pallor of the mucous membranes due to blood loss and anemia
• Extensive subcutaneous and intra-muscular hemorrhage, no trauma
• Some bleeds may be microscopic
• Contributory cause of death?
• Presence of liver residues
• Sub-lethal haemorrhaging (and enhanced blood loss at moult or minor trauma)
• Behavioural changes
• Increased bone turnover (bone contains vitamin-K dependent proteins) - but no effects detected in raptors
• Poor body condition
• Increased susceptibility to parasites and disease and other stressors including mange
Uncertainties:
• How many mortalities can we detect?
• How much more exposure needed to increase number of mortalities?
• Does anticoagulation enhance likelihood of death by other causes, such as increased susceptibility to disease?
• How much does sensitivity vary between species?
• Does previous exposure increase susceptibility—bioaccumulation of residues
• Are there particularly sensitive “life-stages”?
• Effects associated with sub-lethal exposure?
• Indirect effects – shortage of prey?

54
Q

develop insights into the costs, benefits and effectiveness of mitigation measures intended to reduce non-target exposure

A
  • Reduce/ban the use of rodenticides [altogether? away from buildings]
  • Stewardship based on better usage practice
  • Understand effect of resistance and monitor its whereabouts
  • Requirement for code of practice including justification for prolonged use
  • Experimental studies and monitoring
  • Monitoring
  • Measure success

against mitigation:

- Benefit to economy, human health and sustainable agriculture
- Some SGARS may be the only way to combat resistance
- Public don't want rodent infestations
- No indication of widespread mortality
- No evidence of population declines
55
Q

The contrasting philosophies underpinning organisations based around biological collections, using museums and biobanks as examples

A

With biobanks the focus is on using items destructively while museums safeguard and enhance collections for future generations.
Biobanks: specific purpose, secure facility, generate data
Museums: open ended, public exhibition, preserve collection

56
Q

How biobanks are organised in terms of storage formats and techniques, sample monitoring, data management, safety and sample retrieval

A

Liquid nitrogen is commonly used for long term storage but can dry out oxygenated air

57
Q

Biobank applications, using clinical and environmental banks as examples

A

Genome-wide association study: collects samples from many people and looks for phenotypes of interest then associates groups and phenotypes

main sector is the biomedical one, but also the environmental one

allows to better understand common and life-threatening disease

58
Q

Some aspects of relevant legal frameworks, including the Human Tissues Act and The Nagoya Protocol

A

Nagoya protocol: fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising from the utilisation of genetic resources

HUman tissues act regulates the removal, storage, use and disposal of human bodies, organs and tissue. Allows for anonymous organ donation, and requires licences for those intending to publicly display human remains. The Act also specifies that in cases of organ donation after death the wishes of the deceased takes precedence over the wishes of relatives

59
Q

Biobank projects at the Natural History Museum using a project on schistosomes and a project on animal tissue biobanking as examples.

A

In building a global repository of schistosomiasis related specimens and contextual data providing a resource for essential research into schistosomiasis, a Neglected Tropical Disease (NTD).

60
Q

be aware of terminal ballistic of hunting ammunition and its implications for lead accumulation in wildlife (and humans)

A

Indicative pathological (but not pathognomic) alterations of lead poisoning:

- Enlargement of gall bladder
- Liver swelling
- Gastric reflux of bile
- Fibrinous pericarditis
- Green stained feathers around the cloaca

Can be passed through to other individuals through the food chain (wildlife and humans). Lead pieces that don’t go into the animal targeted will fall to the ground and potentially be eaten.

Lead intoxication was by far the most common cause of mortality in white-tailed sea eagles in Germany

61
Q

understand the kinetics of lead in an organism

A
  • Blockage of electrical transmission in neurotransmitters
  • Lead is absorbed passively in the intestine

Toxicity of lead:
- Neurotoxicity
○ Impairement of neurotransmission, body coordination, blindness
- Respiratory system
○ Hypoxia, open-mouth breathing
- Erythropoiesis (blood formation)
○ Interference with Fe2+ in haemoglobin synthesis, haemolysis
- Digestive system
Liver swelling, liver failure, gall bladder enlargement, bile reflux, gastro-enteritis

First found in blood, then internal organs and finally in bone (life-long deposit)

62
Q

know the symptoms and diagnosis of lead intoxication

A 
Diagnosis: blood sample (lead blood values and delta-aminolevulinic acid) and radiograph for radio-dense particles) 
Symptoms are highly variable and may include: 
•	dropping wings
•	weakness
•	weight loss
•	green stained feathers around cloaca
•	almond eyes
•	dehydration
•	cramped claws
•	unable to stand
•	laboured breathing
•	advanced emaciation
•	anaemia
•	problems in coordinating movements
•	blindness
63
Q

realise the importance of integrating stakeholders in solving conflicts

A

Need to provide scientific information that works with the stakeholders to get them on board with any changes. Things that they may be concerned about are: costs, killing efficiency, suitability to guns.

64
Q

discuss potential solutions and problems for lead intoxication

A
  • Lead-free ammunition
    • Provide no difference in wound size and effectively kill wild game as well as conventional bullets
    • Hunters are sceptical
  • Prohibit access to contaminated food
    • Rapidly remove bird of prey scavenger food from environment
65
Q

hazards presented to animal health by mass populations of marine microalgae, including blooms of dinoflagellates and diatoms;

A
  • Paralytic shellfish poisoning - Cause deaths in food chains
  • Neurotoxic shellfish poisoning - Cause deaths in food chains
  • Amnesic shellfish poisoning - Cause deaths in food chains
  • Diarrhetic shellfish poisoning - Possible tumours
  • Ciguatera fish poisoning - Cause deaths in food chains

HABS: harmful algal blooms - have severe economic impact:

- Mass fish mortalities - Bans in shellfish sales
66
Q

the principle classes of marine microalgal toxins and their modes of action at the molecular level and in whole animals;

A
  • Psp: paralytic shellfish poisoning
    o Caused by dinoflagellates
    o Vectors are shellfish
    o Toxin produced: saxitoxins
    o Target: voltage-dependent sodium channels
    o Animals feeding on shellfish accumulate toxins
    o Effects on widlife
    o Death of some molluscs
    o Fish deaths
    o Death of turtles, sand eels, birds. dolphins, humpback whales, monk seals, sea otters
  • NSP: neurotoxic shellfish poisoning
    o Main cuase: dinoflagellates
    o Vectors: shellfish, water, air
    o Toxins: brevetoxins
    o Target: voltage-dependent sodium channels
    o Effect on wildlife:
     Death of invertebrates, fish, fish-eating birds, dolphins, sea turtles, florida manatee
  • ASP: amnesic shellfish poisoning
    • Main cuase: diatoms
    • Vectors: shellfish, crustaceans
    • Toxins: domoic acid
    • Target: glutamate receptors (loss of short-term memory)
    • Effect on wildlife:
    • Death of anchovies, mollusc and fish-eating birds, sea otters, sea lions
  • DSP: diarrhetic shellfish poisoning
    • Main cause: dinoflagellates
    • Vectors: shellfish
    • Toxin: okadaic acid
    • Target: protein phosphatates (severe diarrhea)
    • Effect on wildlife:
    • Possible tumour development in marine mammals
-	CFP: cinguatera fish poisoning
•	Main cause: dinoflagellates
•	Vectors: reef fish
•	Toxins: ciguatoxins
•	Target: voltage-dependent sodium channels
•	Effect on wildlife:
•	Carnivorous fish accumulate it by consuming fish
•	Seafood-borne illness worldwide
67
Q

examples of the exposure routes involving hazards presented by marine algae and their toxins leading to adverse effects on health in humans and animals;

A

e.g. psp accumulated in animals that feed on shellfish and can cause death of molluscs, fish, turtles, birds, dolphins, etc.

68
Q

international and national guidelines and regulations relating to human health protection from marine algal toxins.

A
69
Q

hazards presented to animal health by mass populations of freshwater cyanobacteria, including planktonic and benthic species;

A

can occur as mass population of blooms, scums or mats that produce potent toxins called cyanotoxins
animal poisonings usually divided into hepatotoxic blooms and neurotoxic blooms

70
Q

the principle classes of cyanobacterial toxins and their modes of action at the molecular level and in whole animals;

A
  • Hepatotoxins (microcystins and nodularins)
    • Microcystins cause gross changes in mammalian liver – hepatocytes get covered in vesicles
    • Inhibit protein phosphates which regulate cells
  • Neurotoxins (anatoxin-a and saxitoxins)
    • Muscle fasciculations
    • Convulsions
    • cyanosis

cytotoxins that produce both hepatotoxic and neurotoxic effects (Cylindrospermopsin)

dermatoxins that cause irritant responses on contact
(Lypopolysaccharide, Lyngbyatoxins and Aplysiatoxin)

71
Q

the role of cyanobacterial toxins in the mass mortalities of flamingos in E. African lakes, as a case study and example of the investigation of a suspected cyanobacterial poisoning episode.

A

Mass mortality of flamingos in lake Nakuru. Lakes were found to have large blooms of cyanobacteria
Many dead birds were found to have characteristic opisthotonos (neck curved back along back) which suggests neurotoxicosis. Analysis was conducted for anatoxin-a. assumption that birds ingested bacteria as they are filter feeders
2 sources of cyanotoxins: food and drinking water (benthic cyanobacteria)

72
Q

the contribution that forensic veterinary pathology may make to investigations of wildlife crime

A

whether the findings were inflicted, whether the animal was alive at the time, cause of death, how long it lived
whether findings are sufficient to support or exclude a particular event
confirmation of breed, species etc.

73
Q

the importance of evidence management, of documentation and of continuity of evidence

A

• forensic PME
o Animal is usually seized
o Instructions on why need PME and what questions need to be answered
o History - usually not thorough
o Imaging very useful - radiography, CT scans
o Special dissection
o Evidence management
- Demonstrate secure custodianship
- Needs to start before animal arrives at lab
- Bag animal up and tag
- Ensure label cannot be removed
o No/limited observers
o Documentation
o Report - witness statement
o Retention
o SOPs (standard operative procedures) and protocols for specific cases
o Contemporaneous notes regarding the case - emails, telephone calls, anything happening to the remains, etc.
o Photographs

Continuity of evidence: To maintain the integrity of real evidence relied upon in court, it is necessary that the prosecution is in a position to account for all the time during which exhibits have been in the possession of the investigators

74
Q

their own potential roles in investigations of wildlife crime

A
75
Q

what they might expect from the forensic veterinary pathologist in investigations of wildlife crime

A

whether the findings were inflicted, whether the animal was alive at the time, cause of death, how long it lived
whether findings are sufficient to support or exclude a particular event
confirmation of breed, species etc.

MSc Wild Animal Biology (7 decks)

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