essay plans Flashcards

1
Q

the indoctrination of the population was so successful that there was barely any need for terror. how far do you agree

A

Cult of Il Duce: - attempt to create a cult of personality around Mussolini
- wanted to present Mussolini as a heroic figure and an ideal leader as well as a role model for italian men
- used media to promote this idea. photography and posters used to show mussolini as a man of action
- portraits in all classrooms
- media never mentioned aspects of Mussolini that may make him seem weak
- 1926 national fascist culture institute established to spread propaganda. Mussolini compared to historical italian figures such as Caesar.

Fascist organisations: - ONB/ Ballila youth group
- activities such as marching, wresting and shooting
- aimed to create future soldiers
- decree created the ONB officially in 1926 and organisation developed significantly
- loyalty to Mussolini emphasised
- girls encouraged to exercise to became healthy mothers prepared for childbirth
- 1937 membership 7 million
- compulsory until the age of 11. membership in the suouth after 11 low as they went to work. membership in girls over 11 low, resented focus on motherhood
OND- workers organisation
- mid-30s clubhouses in most towns
-had bars, billiard halls, libraries, football teams
- provided subsidised holidays and excursions to beaches and mountains
- by 1939 membership 4 million

Repression: - OVRA had over 50,000 agents
- compiled files on approx 130,000 subversives with the help of 100,000 informants
- by 1930 organising around 20,000 raids a week and made about 6,000 arrests
- compiled index with very detailed information about subversives
- MVSN also had 50,000 agents used to intimidate the population
- actions unofficial, made them more intimidating
- special tribunal created and run by militia. applied summary justice, cast 31 death sentences
Limits to terror:
- special tribunal tried 21,000 people but only sentences 3,6000 people
- avergae sentence given out by the special tribunal only 5 years
in confino- about 10,000 prisoners
- main punishment limiting what prisoners could read and discuss
- punished through boredom

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2
Q

Mussolini’s policy of Autaky was beneficial to the development of the Italian economy. How far do you agree?

A

Battle for Grain: - high tariffs on imported grain
- grants given to farmers so they could by machinery
- wheat imports fell 75%
- cereal production doubled 1922-39 and by 1940s almost fully self-sufficient in cereal production

Limits of Battle for Grain: - decline in the quality of the Italian diet
- still needed to import meat and eggs, had negative impact on livestock farming
- cereal production fell again as the war began
- land infertile and expensive to use, especially in the south
- restrictions on use of fertiliser in the war

Raw Materials: - tariffs introduced to limit imports
- reliant on British coal
- attempted substitutions such as rayon for cotton
- produced virtually no coal, very little steel and iron and no oil had been discovered
- government assistance given to try and help locate raw minerals
- by 1940 only 1/5 of industrial material needs met by domestic production

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3
Q

The battle for grain was a success but the battle for births was a complete failure. How far do you agree?

A

Battle for grain success: - high tariffs on imported grain
- wheat imports fell 75%
- 1922-39 cereal production doubled and by 1940s almost self-sufficient in cereal
- grants so farmers could by machinery

Battle for Births failure: - birth rates continued to decline
- marriage rates declined and average age of marriage rose
- population didn’t reach the 60 million target by 1950
(policies gave marriage loans that didn’t have to be repayed if the couple had four children. Couples didn’t have to pay any tax if they had ten children)

Limits to Grain: - decline in the quality of Italians diets
- prioritising grain impacted livestock farming. had to import meat and eggs
- cereal production fell again when the war began
- land infertile and expensive to use, especially in the south
- restrictions on the use of fertiliser during the war
Successes of Battle for Births: - population rose to 45 million in 1940 and to 47.5 million in 1950
- mothers benefitted from improved maternity services

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4
Q

How far do you agree that Mussolinis greatest economic success was the battle for grain?

A

Battle for Grain: + high tariffs on imported grain
+ grants given to farmers so they could buy new machinery
+ wheat imports fell 75%
+ 1922-29 cereal production doubled and by 1940s almost fully self-sufficient
- decline in the quality of the italian diet
- cereal production fell during the war
- came at expense of livestock farming, had to import meat and eggs
- land infertile and expensive to use, especially in the south

Recovery from the Great Depression:
- wages cut 12% to reduce the need to lay people off
- government bought shares in businesses and then sold them once the business was stable again
- government encouraged cartelisation and price fixing so businesses could stay open
- introduced public works schemes such as electrifying 5,000 km of railway, building of roads and homes to decrease unemployment
- gave banks credit to make up for when businesses couldn’t repay loans.

Battle for marshes: + private landowners encouraged to accept schemes
+ improved public health, malaria reduced
+ provided employment
- didn’t boost farming
- claimed 1/6 of Italian land would be reclaimed, only ended up being 1/20
- 3/4 of the land that was reclaimed was then neglected
- 1928-38 only 80,000 hectares reclaimed

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5
Q

how far did Mussolini’s economic policies fulfil his aims?

A

Autarky: - tariffs on imported goods
- attempted substitutions eg rayon for cotton
- produced very little coal, steel and iron and had no discovered oil
- government assistance given to help locate raw minerals
- by 1940 only 1/5 of raw material production met by domestic production
- still relied on coal imports from Britain

Increased Population: - gave marriage loans out (didn’t have to be paid if parents had four children)
- parents who had 10 children didn’t have to pay any tax
- populations rose to 45 million in 1940 and by 1950 it was 47.5 million
- mothers benefited from improved maternity services
- marriage rate declined and age of marriage increased
- didn’t reach the 60 million target for population

Agriculture: - grants given so farmers could afford machinery
- tariffs on imported cereal
- wheat imports fell 75%
- 1922-39 cereal production doubled and by the 1940s italy almost fully self-sufficient in cereals
- decline in quality of the italian diet
- impacted livestock farming, had to import meat and eggs
- cereal production fell again in the war
- limit on fertiliser in the war
- land infertile and expensive to use, especially in the south

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6
Q

to what extent did the aims of Mussolini’s foreign policy change 1935-39?

A

influence in the mediterranean:
- Mussolini backed Zogs accession to president and then his proclamation as King
- through support and manipulation albania became an Italian protectorate
- Mussolini supported nationalist movements in yugoslavia to create instability
- invaded albania in 1939 to show his power. Albanian forces quickly defeated and Zog fled. Fascist regime set up in Albania
- supported franco in the spanish civil war to try and gain power
- was promised military bases in spain if he aided the Fascists

Reputation ans Alliances:
- historically gain relations with Britain, some tension about control in the Mediterranean
- stresa front in 1935 was an alliance with Britain and france, against Germany
- 1936 formed Rome-Berlin Axis and then later signed the Anti-Comitern pact with Germany and Japan. Left the league of nations and ended the Stresa front
- allowing anchluss in 1938 damaged his domestic reputation
- invasion of abyssinia and albania damaged relations with Britain and France
- march 1939 signed pact of steel with germany agreeing on common foreign policy. Mussolini told Hitler he didn’t want a war for three years. Hitler invaded Poland in september 1939.

colonial expansion:
- invaded Abyssinia
- triggered when 50 italians killed in the walwell incident
- captured adowa in four days ( where italy had previously been defeated)
- slow progress after Adowa and lasted 7 months which was much longer than expected
- required 600,000 troops including airforce
- portrayed as a huge italian victory
- very costly, led to devaluation of the Lira
- italy gained a repuation for brutality

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7
Q

Mussolini’s attempt to make italy a great power 1935-40 was undermined mainly by political weakness. How far do you agree?

A

economic weakness:
- dependent on Britain for coal
- autarky had impacted livestock farming. Had to import met and eggs
- abyssinia and spanish civil war very costly. lasted longer than expected.
- after invasion of Abyssinia trade embargo put in place by the League of Nations
- only represented 3% of global industry
- expected to produce all Axis ships

Military miscalculation:
- prepared 220,000 troops but ended up requiring 600,000 and air power
- very slow progress after capturing Adowa, took seven months before the capital was captured
- involvement in Spanish civil war greatly decreased military strength
- both caused economic issues and negatively impacted alliances

German Alliance:
- rome berlin axis formed and then later signed the anti-commitern pact with Germany and Japan.
- Mussolini supported Anchluss which negatively impacted Mussolinis domestic reputation
- commercial treaty with Germany meant Italy were more reliant on germany and also resulted in 500,000 italians being sent to germany for work
- anti-semitic laws and increased military spending also damaged relations
- when Mussolini and Hitler signed pact of steel Mussolini stated that he didn’t want war for three years. Hitler invaded poland in september 1939
- even when Italy joined the war in 1940 they were completely unprepared militarily and economically.

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8
Q

Main consequence of Anti-Semitic decrees was reduction in support. How far do you agree?

A

reduction in support:
- meant laws couldn’t be truly implemented
- only fully enforced after 1943
- Fascist ideology nor explicitly antisemitic, no stromg racial doctrine
- many assimilated jewish communities in Italy
- antisemitism much less widespread than in other european nations
- big propaganda schemes, included pseudoscientific journals
- introduction of antisemitic decrees led to increased criticism . critics put down by the MVSN

Jewish employment/ businesses:
- jewish people banned from working in the public sector
- banned from owning large businesses or large tracts of land
- some jewish businesses shut down
- some businesses vandalises
- many jews lost jobs in the public sector, especially in education

other Jewish rights:
- forbade from marrying non-jewish italians
- after 1943 thousands of italian jews deported to concentration camps and over 7,000 murdered at death camps
- mass deportations

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9
Q

to what extent was Mussolini responsible for his own downfall?

A

Mussolini: - leadership in the war very poor eg in france sent tanks over the alps even though not suited to environment.
- in greece no coordination between navy and airforce
- in africa continued tio use outdated WWI tactics and weapons
- failed to take control of matla or gibraltar
- in 1943 sacked half of his cabinet caused great tension within the party

issues with the elite: - king pressured by frustrated italian generals into dismissing Mussolini
- after initial industrial boom the industrialists began to push for Mussolini’s deposal
- army generals had begun to seek ways the leave the war/ army
- leading fascists wanted to replace Mussolini
- vatican was considering ways to push Mussolini out

Issues within the Fascist party- membership had plummeted
- key people at top of fascist party wanted to overthrow Mussolini
- the fascist who were pushing for his deposal had been chosen for their loyalty
- some fascists wanted peace and an armastice with the allies. others wanted a stronger alliance with Germany.
- FGC met for the first time in seven years. debated on Mussolini’s leadership for nine hours. move to end the dictatorship was passed 19 votes to 7

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10
Q

how far were economic problems responsible for the failings of liberal italy 1911-18?

A

economic problems: - only responsible for 1.8 billion worth of foreign trade, Germany responsible for 4.3 billion
- dependent on British coal and French wheat
- 3.6 million Italians had emigrated to the USA which had negative impact on the economy
- italy’s steel production poor/ only produced 0.7 million tonnes whilst britain produced 6.5 million tonnes
WWI - food shortages
- workers expected to work longer hours
- strikes banned
- workers real time wages decreased 20%
- government had to print more money, led to inflation
- increased state debt before war 3 biilion and after war 23 billion lire
- new industry for planes. produced 6,500 in 1918
- fiat produced 25,000 vehicles in 1918

Political issues:
- impossible balancing act of winning over rival poiticians
- managed to win over the moderates of the PSI with reforms such as banning employment for children over 12, providing maternity and pension funds and the main change was a policy of none intervention in labour disputes
- didn’t fully win catholics over. let a divorce bill quietly disappear and had a voting agreement. Didn’t solve the roman question, prioritised socialists
- tried to win over ANI with libya but it failed
-WWI caused divisions between pacifists and interventionists
- socialists used as a scapegoat in the war, blamed for poor performance. Seen as anti-italian, and defeatist. socialist leaders arrested after caparetto.

Foreign Policy:
- launched an invasion in Libya to try and please imperialist nationalists
- origionally popular amongst nationalists
- ANI took credit for the achievements and blamed the liberal government for the 3,500 deaths
- ended up requiring 50,000 men
- caused tension with pacifist socialists and catholic church
- cost 1.3 billion, 50 million more a month than expected
- caused tension between ANI and the liberal government
- weren’t prepared for WWI because of libya
- defeated at caparetto, 62,000 men die, many due to lack of preparation (of cholera and frostbite)

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11
Q

how accurate is it to say the Matteoti crisis was the most significant event in the establishment of a dictatorship? 1922-26

A

Matteoti: - leader of the PCI party who spoke out against fascist corruption
- rumours he had files detailing this fascist corruption
- was kidnapped and murdered, two fascist officials implicated. one Mussolini’s press secretary
- threatened to destroy the PNF
- led to aventine secession
Aventine secession: - over 100 anti-fascist deputies left parliament and created their own. outrage at crisis.
- backfired, made it much easier for Mussonlini to pass legislation as the opposition had been greatly diminished
-1925 Mussolini allowed to anounce and create a fascist dictatorship

Acerbo Law & 1924 elections: - Mussolini proposed legislation to prevent weak coilitions
- would mean any party which gained 25% of the vote would be entitled to 2/3 of the seats in the chamber of deputies
- supported by the vatican/ catholics, the ANI and the elites
- opposed by the PSI & PCI
- at elections Mussolini didn’t want any violence but squads destroyed socialists. PSI councillor murdered
- at the 1924 elections the fascists won 66% of the vote and the number of fascist deputies rose from 75 to 374
- still 100+ seats held by the opposition

1925-26 repression: - 1925 PSI banned and pressed law passed. journalism to be supervised by the state
- law passed which allowed any employee who was hostile to the PNF to lose their job
- parliament no longer held power to remove the prime minister by vote of no confidence
- october 1926 all political parties banned other than the PNF
- aventine deputies permanently removed from the chamber of deputies
- local government abolished. mayors replaced by podesta who were appointed by prefects. prefects chosen by Mussolini.

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12
Q

in the years 1911-14 the invasion of Libya played the most significant role in undermining Giolitti’s government. How far do you agree?

A

Invasion of Libya: - launched an invasion in Libya to try and please the ANI due to their imperialistic beleifs
- initially greaeted with enthusiasm by nationalists
- ANI took credit for the invasion and blamed the liberal government for the 3,500 deaths
- required 50,000 men
- lost support of the pacifist PSI and caused the Catholic church to withdraw their support for the liberals
- led directly to Giolitti’s resignation
- cost 50 million more a year than expected
- caused tension between ANI and PSI

Political system/ Suffrage: - growing suffrage movement, increased after invasion of Libya
- Giolitti passed legislation extending the franchise to all men over 30 and those who fought in Libya
- backfired, liberals lost 71 seats in the 1913 elections. ANI, PSI and catholics made gains
- catholic church withdrew support for the Liberal party

Trasformismo: - impossible balancing act of winning over winning over political rivals and voters
- managed to win over the moderate PSI with reforms such as maternity fund, making work for under 12s illegal. Main reason was the policy of non-intervention in labour disputes
- didn’t fully win over the catholic’s, prioritised the PSI. did let a divorce bill disappear. didn’t move to solve the roman question
- tried and failed to win over the ANI with Libya
- Libya also caused political tension between the ANI and the PSI

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13
Q

how far did Fascist ideology change 1919-21?

A

militarism and foreign policy:
1919- abolish mandatory military service
- foreign policy of peaceful and fair competition
- agreed italy’s victory was mutilated but no aims to reclaim land through force
1921- compulsory conscription
- foreign policy focussed on gaining power in the Mediterranean to restore Italy’s former glory
- clear expansionist aims, idea of fully unifying Italy

pro-worker vs pro-business:
1919- enforcement of an 8 hour work day
- very harsh tax and confiscation of unproductive income
- wanted workers participation in management of industry through councils of labour
1921- exceptions to the 8 hours work day for agriculture and industry
- tax proportional to income
- all nationalised firms to be privatised

freedoms and rights:
1919- wanted to confiscate all church lands
- universal education
- universal suffrage
- liberty of opinion and conscience
1921- no mention of church lands
- rights of the people limited for the benefit of the state
-schools to train only the governing elite and future soldiers

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14
Q

how far did methods used by fascist to attract support change 1919-22

A

attempts at legitimacy: - march 1919 Mussolini called together 20 ex-servicemen groups in milan. organised them into one group, the Fasci di combattimiento
- attempt to create a mutual feeling of belonging and nationalism
- loose programme of left-wing policies
- in 1919 elections fascist performed very poorly, gained no seats in the chmaber of deputies
- in 1920 created a new, more right wing and business focussed
- 1921 consolidated into the PNF officially
- in may 1921 elections the PNF gained 7% of the vote and won 35 seats in parliament
- tried to create pact of pacification with the PSI and demanded an end to squadristi violence
- Mussolini democratically elected as the PNF party leader

Violence to gain support: - socialist avanti newspaper attacked in 1919
- realised violence against socialists could be used to gain support
- hundreds killed in biennio rosso and thousands injured
- during the 1921 elections socialist campaigners attacked, meetings broken up and voters intimidated
- police and army didn’t act against the squadristi, saw them as allies in combatting socialism. lent vehicles and weapons to the squads.

violence to gain power: - began after the Fascists had gained some power legitimately in the 1921 elections
- Mussolini abandoned his dual policy and began to promote violence once again
- wave of violence began. Fascists began to destroy the homes of socialists, destroy meeting places and forcibly taking over councils that were controlled by the PSI
- PNF membership had reached 320,000
- threatened to march on rome if he wasn’t made the PM
- Fascists began to take over government buildings in north and central italy
- 10,000 fascists gathered around rome in preparation
- Victor Emmanuel III offered Mussolini the role of Prime Minister out of fear

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15
Q

the impact of the 1919 elections was the most significant influence in the development of fascism 1919-22. How far do you agree?

A

1919 Elections: - loose left wing policies
- only received 5% votes and no seats in the chamber of deputies
- influenced the party becoming more pro-business and creating policies that would appeal to the middle class
1919- introduction of 8 hour work day and guaranteed minimum wage
- wanted workers to participate in management of industry through councils of labour
- heavy and progressive tax. confiscation of unproductive income.
1921- exemptions to the 8 hour work day for agriculture and industrial needs
- increased production through national solidarity
- taxes proportional to income
- wanted all nationalised firms to be privatised

Socialists unrest: - 1919-21 Biennio Rosso, year of widespread strikes
- september 1920 3000+ factories occupied
- 1917 Russian revolution inspired this unrest. Italians were scared of a similar socialist uprising in Italy
- 1919 Fascist squadristi attacked the socialist Avanti newspaper
- realised violence against socialists could be used to gain support. Influenced the 1920 new programme
- encouraged more violence, 1919-22 2,000 people killed
- fascists began to attack socialist groups, 1921 elections used to attack socialist campaigners and intimidate voters.

role of the authorities: - police and army turned a blind eye to fascist violence. saw fascists as allies against socialist unrest.
- before the 1921 elections the police and army even lent weapons and vehicles to fascists to assist violence against socialists
- during march on rome the King had the power to enact martial law and the kings army was larger than the fascists present but ended martial law after 8 hours and invited Mussolini to become the PM

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16
Q

how accurate is it to say that the rise of catholicism as a political force was the main reason for Giolitti’s decline in influence 1911-14

A

rise of catholicism: -already had influence on the Italian population
- catholic church encouraged people to vote against the PSI and for the Liberals
- Giolitti prioritised relations with the PSI over the catholics
- did allow a divorce bill to quietly disappear
- didn’t make any moves to solve the roman question
- had involvement in local coalitions

Invasion of Libya: - launched the invasion to try and win support form the imperialist ANI
- initially greeted with enthusiasm by nationalists
- ANI took credit for the success of Libya and blamed the liberal government for the 3,5000 lives lost
- required the power of 50,000 men
- lost support of the pacifists PSI and caused tension with the catholic church
- led directly to Giolitti’s resignation
- cost 50 million lire more per month (7 months) than originally expected
- caused political unrest, tension between ANI and PSI

extending the franchise: - there was an increasing suffrage movement, increased after the invasion of Libya
- Vote extended to literate men over 21, all men over 30 and those who fought in Libya. hoped it would lead to higher vote share for the liberals
- extending the franchise backfired, the liberals lost 71 votes. PSI and ANI made significant gains
- led to catholics withdrawing their support for the Liberals

17
Q

there were more similarities than differences between the Republic of Salo and the government in the South 1943-45. How far do you agree?

A

Leadership:
similarities- the republic of salo a puppet state of the german, Nazi government
- the government in the south a client state of the allies
- still influence of fascism in both, fascists cabinet in Salo and podesta and prefects remained imn the south
differences- Salo controlled by Nazis and Mussolini, south under the control of the allies
- north had cabinet of fascists whilst the south was a constitutional monarchy that tried to limit the influence of fascism. removed Badoglio as he was too closely tied to fascism.

impact on civillians:
similarities- both experienced the impacts of war
- poor living conditions in both cases
differences: - north experienced the fighting whilst the south only experienced bombing raids
- population in the norther terrorised. for every german soldier killed, 10 italian civilians were killed
- in the ardentine caves 355 hostages murdered, including some jewish people

economic impact and allies:
similarities- industry struggled and came to a halt
- both relied on foreign powers economically
both
- in both some actions of allies very unpopular. In Salo mass deportations of jewish people which led to 7,000 deaths. In the south the allies relied on the mafia as allies
differences- in the republic of Salo economic ruin largely due to the impacts of war/ fighting
- in the south economic problems much more long-term
- in North issues created by the Nazis, destroyed industry and carried away equipment
- behaviour of foreign powers in the north much harsher.

18
Q

republic of salo 1943-45 completely different to that of the government 1922-43

A

leadership:
similarities- both led by Mussolini
- lacked absolute power in both. could be removed by the king and then under the control of Hitler
differences- in salo republic Mussolini puppet of hitler
- originally government based in rome, in Salo based on lake garda
- originally controlled all of italy, in salo only controlled the north

Foreign Policy:
similarities- Hitler valued Mussolini in both times. Early on saw Mussolini as an inspiration, Mussolini proposed the Munich conference which allowed him to take control of the sudentenland. Later hitler sent the SS to break Mussolini out of imprisonment
- propped Mussolini up as head of a fascist government
- in both Mussolini followed unpopular german policy. early on was anchluss and policy on armed forces, later on deportation of jewish Italians
Differences- Mussolini seen as less of an equal in the Salo Republic he was threated with the destruction of turin, genoa and milan if he didn’t agree to head the government

Nature of Fascism:
similarities- both periods existed as a fascist regime
- both had a cabinet of fascists
- both had fascist manifestos
differences- verona manifesto moved back to 1919 policies. anticlerical and wanted to nationalise businesses

19
Q

imapact of WWII on Italy was completely different to the impact of WWI

A

Political Impact:
WWI- caused great instability
- socialists blamed. idea they were defeatists, anti-italian and unpatriotic. leaders arrested after caparetto.
- attitude towards socialist allowed fascist violence too be so successful and the establishment of a dictatorship
WWI- led to the establishment of a republic. the king was voted out 12.7 million votes to 10.7 million
- first democratic elections in 20 years and universal suffrage

Economic Impact:
WWI- food shortages
- strikes made illegal and real time wages decreased 20%
- benefitted companies like fiat who became leading manufacturers
- created an industry fro planes, 6,500 produced in 1918
WWII- led to high prices of goods. meant a back market and smuggling weer the only means of survival
- in the north germans committed atrocities and stole machinery and industrial goods

Social Impact:
WWI- divisions between interventionists and the general public/ fascists
- divisions between nationalists and socialists
-created industrialist unrest. Biennio Rosso straigfht after the war led to 3000+ factory sit ins.
WWII- divisions created between the north and the south, south wanted a constitutional monarchy and north a republic
- different experiences of war. Northern population terrorised and murdered whilst the south experienced bombing raids.