essay plans Flashcards
Wundt AO1
Psychology - the scientific study of the mind, behaviour and experience
Introspection - first systematic experimental attempt to study the mind by breaking up conscious awareness into basic structures of thought, images and sensations
Science - a means of acquiring knowledge through systematic and objective investigation - aim is to discover general laws
Wundt’s lab - opened first lab in 1879 dedicated to psychological enquiry - marked beginning of scientific psychology - separating from philosophical roots - analyse nature of human consciousness - represented first systematic attempt to study the mind under controlled conditions - pioneering method known as introspection
Standardised procedures - main objective to try and develop theories about mental processes - participants given ticking metronome to standardise time
Divided observations into 3 categories -thoughts, images and sensations
Structuralism - isolating structure of consciousness - stimuli that Wundt used always present in same order and same instructions
Wundt AO3
Scientific - standardised
- Systematic and well controlled
- All introspections recorded in controlled lab environment
- Any possible extraneous variables of a factor
- Forerunner to later scientific approaches eg behaviourist
Subjective - self-report
- Could have hidden thoughts
- Difficult to establish meaningful laws of behaviour from data
- Flawed and did not meet criteria of scientific study
Contribution - first textbook
- First academic journal of psychological research
- First psychological textbook
- Founder of modern psychology
- Pioneered research - set foundations for approaches
Origins of psychology AO1
17th C - 19th C - psychology is a branch of the broader discipline of philosophy - is psychology has a definition during time it is as experimental philosophy
1879 - Wundt opened first experimental psych lab in Germany - psychology emerges as a distinct discipline in its own right
1900s - Freud emphasises the influence of unconscious mind (psychodynamic approach) person-centred therapy - psychoanalysis and shows that physical problems can be explained in terms of conflicts within the mind
1913 - Watson writes psychology as behaviourists view it - later with Skinner establishes behaviourist approach
First half of 20th C - psychodynamic and behaviourist approaches dominate psychology
1950s - Rogers and Maslow develop humanistic approach - third force of psychology - rejecting previous view that human behaviour determined by outside factors - emphasise self-determination and free well
1950s - digital computer gives psychologists a metaphor for operations of the human mind - cognitive approach reintroduces the study of mental processes to psychology but in a more scientific way than wundt’s earlier investigations
1960s - bandura proposes slt - draws attention to role of cognitive factors in learning, providing bridge between newly established cognitive approach and traditional behaviourism
1980s onwards - biological approach begins to establish itself as dominant scientific perspective in psychology - due to advances in technology that have increased understanding of the brain and biological processes
21st C - cognitive neuroscience emerges as a distinct discipline bringing together cognitive and biological approaches - cognitive neuroscience investigates how biological structures influence mental state
Origins of psychology AO3
Modern psychology - scientific discipline
- Same aim as natural sciences - describe, understand, predict
- Psychology established as a scientific discipline
Subjective data - not all approaches use objective methods
- Humanistic rejects scientific methods and focuses on individual and subjective experiences
- Psychodynamic approach focuses on case studies which are not representative
Paradigm - Kuhn - not science
- Any science must have a paradigm - set of principles, assumptions and methods that all people who with within that subject agree on
Behaviourist approach AO1
Behaviourist approach - a way of explaining behaviour in terms of what is observable and in terms of learning
Assumptions -
- only interested in studying behaviour that can be observed and measured
- reject introspection - instead rely on lab studies
- all behaviour is learned - blank slate
Classical conditioning - learning by association - occurs when two stimuli are repeatedly paired together - neutral stimulus eventually produces the same response that first produced by UCS
Operant conditioning - form of learning in which behaviour is shaped and maintained by its consequences - possible consequences of behaviour include reinforcement and punishment
Reinforcement - a consequence of behaviour that increases the likelihood of that behaviour being repeated - positive or negative
Punishment -unpleasant consequence of behaviour
Pavlov
cc - learning through association
dogs conditioned to salivate to sound of bell
showed how a neutral stimulus can come to elicit a new learned response
Skinner
operant conditioning
skinner box - rats and pigeons - food when button pressed or to avoid electric shock
Behaviourist approach AO3
Well controlled
P - strength as well controlled
E - focused on measurable observations in highly controlled lab setting
E - allows for cause and effect relationship
L - scientific credibility
+counterpoint
P - oversimplified the learning process
E - reduces behaviour to simple components - ignored important influences
E - SLT and cognitive mention mental processes
L - learning more complex than observation behaviours
Real world application
P - strength as applied to real-world behaviours
E - token economy systems for institutions
E - rehabilitation - operant conditioning through tokens
L - increases value of behaviourist approach - widespread application
Environmental determinism
P - limitation as sees all behaviour as conditioned by past conditioning experiences
E - we are blank slate - everything we do is the sum total of our reinforcement history
E - ignores any possible influence that free will may have on behaviour
L - extreme position and ignores the influence of conscious decision-making processes on behaviour
Ethical issues
P - although procedures controlled
E - ethical issues of the investigations
E - animals housed in harsh, cramped conditions and kept below weight, also had electric shocks
social learning theory AO1
Social learning theory - a way of explaining behaviour that includes both direct and indirect reinforcement, learning theory with role of cognitive factor
Identification - when an observer associates themselves with a role model
people more likely to imitate people they identify with
modelling
becomes a role model if seen to possess similar characteristics to the observer and/or are attractive and have high status
Modelling -
from the observer’s perspective, modelling is imitating the behaviour of a role model
from role model’s perspective, modelling is the precise demonstration of a specific behaviour that may be imitated by an observer
Assumptions -
bandura - behaviour learned through observation and imitation
learning occurs directly through classical and operant conditioning but also indirectly
Vicarious reinforcement -
indirect learning
occurs through observing someone else being reinforced for a behaviour
The role of meditational processes -
cognitive factors that influence learning and come between stimulus and response
attention - the extent to which we notice certain behaviours
retention - how well the behaviour is remembered
motor reproduction - the ability of the observer to perform the behaviour
motivation - the will to perform the behaviour - determined by whether the behaviour was rewarded or punished
Bandura
bobo doll
those who saw adult hitting the doll were more likely to display aggressive behaviour, and more likely if saw the adult being praised
social learning theory AO3
Cognitive factors
P - strength as recognises importance of cognitive factors in learning
E - offer more indepth explanation than classical or operant
E - humans make judgements about whether behaviour is appropriate
L - slt provides a more comprehensive explanation of human learning by recognising the role of meditational processes
+ counterpoint
P - criticised for too little reference to biological influence
E - bandura claimed natural biological differences influence learning potential - learning itself determined by environment
E - recent research - mirror neurons in brain which allow us to imitate
L - biological influences on social learning underemphasised
Contrived lab studies
P - limitation as evidence based on lab studies
E - bandura - observation of young children’s behaviour in lab - people may respond to demand characteristics and unnatural setting
E - the main purpose of bobo doll was to hit it, so children behaved in a way they thought was expected
L - research may tell us little about how children actually learn aggression in everyday life
Real world application
P - strength as slt applied to real world behaviours
E - explain cultural differences, eg modelling, imitation and reinforcement and can explain how cultural norms are transmitted through societies
E - useful in understanding behaviours such as gender roles
L - increases the value of the approach as it can account for real-world behaviour
Reciprocal determinism
P - bandura emphasised reciprocal determinism
E - we are not merely influenced by our external environment, but also exert an influence upon it
E - element of choice suggests there is some free will
L - contrasts with the behaviourist approach which denies the possibility of free will
Cognitive AO1
Cognitive approach -
cognitive - mental processes
approach focused on how our mental processes affect behaviour
Assumptions -
internal mental processes can be studied scientifically
study indirectly by making inferences about what is occurring
Internal mental processes - private operations of the mind such as perception and attention that mediate between stimulus and response
Schema
a mental framework of belief and expectations that influence cognitive processing
developed from experience
Role of the schema
packages of ideas developed from experience
mental framework for interpretation of incoming information
babies born with simple motor schema for innate behaviours
as get older - schema become more detailed
adults have mental representations for everything
enables us to process lots of information quickly - mental shortcut - prevents us being overwhelmed
may also distort our interpretations - rat man study
Interference - process whereby cognitive psychologists draw conclusions about the way mental processes operate on the basis of observed behaviour
Cognitive neuroscience - the scientific study of those biological structures that underpin cognitive processes
Theoretical and computer models -
theoretical models are abstract while computer models are concrete things
information processing approach - information flows through cognitive system in a sequence of stages - MSM
based on the way computers function
The emergence of cognitive neuroscience -
scientific study of the influence of brain structures on mental processing
mapping brain areas to specific cognitive functions
eg fMRI, PET
focus of cognitive neuroscience - now includes use of computer generates models - development of mind-mapping techniques such as brain finger-printing
cognitive AO3
Scientific methods
P - strength as uses objective scientific methods
E - highly controlled and rigorous methods of study - so researchers able to infer cognitive processes
E - use of lab studies for reliable, objective data and with cognitive neuroscience, biology and cognitive - enhance scientific bases
L - study of the mind has a credible scientific basis
+ counter point
P - relies on inference of mental processes
E - so not direct observation - occasionally suffer from being too abstract and theoretical in nature
E - research studies of mental processes often carried out with artificial stimuli and may not represent everyday experience
L - research on cognitive processes may lack external validity
Real-world application
P - strength is practical application
E - dominant approach in psychology and applied to wide range of practical and theoretical contexts
E - includes treatment of depression and improved the reliability of eyewitness testimony
L - supports the value of the cognitive approach
Machine determinism
P - limited as based on machine reductionism
E - similarities between the human mind and operations of thinking machine such as computer
E - computer analogy - ignores influence of emotion and motivation and how it may affect ability to process information eg memory may be affected by emotion such as anxiety for eyewitness testimony
L - machine reductionism may weaken the validity of the cognitive approach
Soft determinism
P - founded on soft determinism
E - view that human behaviour may be determined by internal and external factors but we also can exert free will
E - hard determinism argue against it
L - behaviour may be determined by factors other than free will such as conditioning and genes
biological AO1
Biological approach - perspective that emphasises the importance of physical processes in the body eg genetics and neural function
Assumptions -
everything psychological is at first biological
must look to biological structures and processes within the body
Genes -
make up chromosomes and consist of DNA - codes the physical features of an organism and psychological features
genes transmitted from parents to offspring
Biological structure - arrangement or organisation of parts to form an organ, system or living thing
Neurochemistry - relating to chemicals in the brain that regulate psychological functioning
Genotype - the set of genes that a person possesses
Phenotype -the characteristics of an individual determined by genes and environment
Neurochemical basis of behaviour -
actions of chemicals in brain
much of thought and behaviour relies on chemical transmission in the brain
imbalance in brain eg low serotonin for OCD and overproduction of dopamine in schizophrenia
Genetic basis -
inherited - twin studies and concordance rates
monozygotic and dizygotic
Evolution and behaviour - darwin - natural selection - any genetically determined behaviour that enhances an individual’s survive will continue in future generations
biological AO3
Real world application
P - strength as real-world application
E - neurochemical processes - psychoactive drugs to treat mental disorders
E - eg antidepressants that increase neurotransmitter serotonin at synapses in the brain
L - people with depression manage to condition
+ counterpoint
P - however, does not work for everyone
E - study - 21 antidepressants - wide variations in effectiveness
E - most drugs more effective than placebos
L - challenges value of biological approach as brain chemistry may not account for all cases
Scientific methods - fMRIs and EEGs
P - strength as uses scientific methods of investigation
E - in order to investigate the genetic and biological basis of behaviour, the biological approach makes use of range of precise and objective methods
E - fMRIs and EEgs - accurately measure physiological and neural processes
L - based on objective and reliable data
Biological determinism
P - limited as deterministic
E - sees human behaviour as governed by internal, genetic causes over which we have no control
E - genotype - phenotype shows environment does have role and not even concordance rate with monozygotic twins 100%
L - biological view is often too simplistic and ignores the mediating effects of the environment
psychodynamic AO1
Psychodynamic approach - perspective that described the different forces, most of which are unconscious, that operate on the mind and direct human behaviour and experience
The unconscious - the part of the mind that we are unaware of but which directs much of our behaviour
ID -
entirely unconscious
selfish, aggressive instincts that demand immediate gratification
operates on pleasure principle
present at birth
Ego -
the reality check that balances the conflicting demands of the Id and the superego
reality principle - mediator
age of 2 years
employs defence mechanisms to reduce conflict
Superego -
the moralistic part of our personality which represents the ideal self
during phallic stage - age 5
internalised sense of right and wrong
morality principle
The role of the unconscious -
repressed memories that can be accessed during dreams
preconscious which contains thoughts and memories which are not currently in conscious awareness
Psychosexual stages -
oral - 0-1 - pleasure of mouth - oral fixation eg smoking
anal - 1-3 - anus eg faeces - anal retentive eg perfectionist - anal expulsive eg thoughtless
phallic - 3-6 - pleasure of genital area - phallic personality eg narcissistic
latency - earlier conflicts are repressed
genital - sexual desires from puberty - difficulty forming heterosexual relationships
Fixation -
where child becomes stuck and carries certain behaviours
due to unresolved conflict in stage
Defence mechanisms -
repression, denial, displacement
unconscious strategies that ego uses to manage the conflict between Id and Superego
psychodynamic AO3
Real-life application
P - strength is used in psychotherapy
E - freud - psychoanalysis - first attempt to treat mental disorders psychologically rather than physically
E - help clients bring repressed emotions and forerunner to modern-day talking therapies eg counselling
L - value of psychodynamic approach in creating a new approach to treatment
+ counterpoint
P - psychoanalysis regarded as inappropriate and maybe harmful for more serious disorders eg schizophrenia
E - paranoia and delusional thinking
E - cannot get drip on reality and articulate thoughts
L - freudian therapy not apply to all mental disorders
Explanatory power
P - ability to explain human behaviour
E - huge influence on psychology - key force for first half of 20th C
E - explain wide range of phenomena eg personality development
L - the psychodynamic approach has had positive impact on psychology
Untestable concepts - Karl Popper
P - limited as not much of it is testable
E - Karl Popper - psychodynamic approach does not meet scientific criterion of falsification
E - not open to empirical testing due to unconscious and ideas based on subjective study of single individuals eg little hans
L - freud’s theory was pseudoscience
humanistic AO1
Humanistic psychology -approach to understanding behaviour that emphasises the importance of subjective experience and each person’s capacity for self-determinism
Free will -
the notion that humans make choices and are not determined by internal biological or external forces
Rogers and Maslow - reject more scientific models that try to establish general principles of human behaviour
person-centred approach
Self-actualisation -
the desire to grow psychologically and fulfil one’s full potential
top level of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
personal growth is concerned with developing and changing as a person reach self-actualisation - primary goal
Hierarchy of needs -
five levels
self actualisation - creativity, acceptance
self-esteem - respect of others, confidence
love and belonging - friendship, family
safety and security - health, employment
physiological needs - food, shelter
Self -
Rogers
the ideas and values that characterise I and me and includes perception and valuing of what I am and what I do
Congruence -
Rogers
aim of Rogerian therapy, when the self-concept and ideal self are seen to match
incongruence is gap is too big - self-actualisation is not possible
Conditions of worth -
when a parent places limits or boundaries on their love of their child
unconditional positive regard - good mental health
Client-centred therapy -
counselling
we experience issues such as worthlessness due to a lack of unconditional positive regard
