Essay plan barebones Flashcards
‘British rule was disastrous for both the Indians and the Bantu of South Africa in the years 1857 to 1890’. Assess the validity of this view.
Identify ML
Para Topic Sentences
Evidence used for either side of argument
Analysis + Counter Arguments
ML - British rule was mostly disastrous for the Indian and Bantu peoples.
Topic sentence – In the years 1857 to 1890, British rule introduced policies ‘aimed’ at benefiting the Indian people, however these were often self-serving and did little for the Indians.
India Para -
1) During the Indian Mutiny of 1857, 100,000 Indians were killed. (then explain horrendous nature of these killings, pigskin bad fate for muslims, cannon etc)
+ continue to say however, Government of India Act 1858 released which ostensibly reformed rule and Civil Service created. (analyse, however, but even this continuation of white males, continuation of EIC admissions process, London tests, by design inacccessible for Indians’.
2) British took steps to build strong relationship with Indian princes, 1858 doctrine of lapse, no further annexations post 1858 of princely territory
Counter Argue - However, even this was self interest, princes’ territories covered over 40% of the subcontinent, 565 nominally independent Princely states, thus this closer relationship facilitated greater control and security of exploitative rule which was disaster for indian peoples. Doctrine improved loyalty to enable this,.
3) Some positives of British rule with no string attached,Viceroy Canning toured India from 1859 to 1861, opened universities. By 1890, 60,000 Indians had entered University (seems like he is teaching how to think and prepare for self rule, in reality by 1890 only 5% literate..)
Bantu Para - Topic Sentence - mostly disastrous due to exploitation
1) Evidence 1 – The discovery of diamonds in Kimberley 1867 and gold in Witwatersrand 1886 shifted economy to globally integrated industrial economy (positive) analyse - but brought exploit mining company, limited black rights, 1890 Cecil Rhodes owned 90% of the diamond mines in Kimberley. taken from beneath them without giving share
2) Mining companies began to interfere with native’s life,1880s blacks were forced to live in segregated neighbourhood under mining company
3) disastrous deaths, 1879 Zulu War, around 10,000 Zulus were killed and control of their land was stripped from them
‘Attitudes towards imperialism in Britain in the years 1857 to 1890 were unduly triumphalist, reflecting a one-sided and narrow-minded outlook’. Assess the validity of this view.
Identify ML
Para Topic Sentences
Evidence used for either side of argument
Analysis + Counter Arguments
ML - there was growing challenge, but attitudes remained generally supportive and one sided.
Topic Sentence 1 - Attitudes were distorted towards imperial subjects.
1) In 1857 mutiny,, the Times report 48 English young had been raped by Indian rebels. (naturally led to narrow minded outlook of need for civilisation)
2) Darwin Origin of Species released in 1859 contained the theory of evolution, London Anthropological Society of 1860s distorted this and applied to human races. (led to white superiority attitude)
3) Colonial and Indian Exhibition 1886
Attitudes against imperialism
1) Karl Marx criticised reports of 1857 Mutiny whilst he was living in London, highlighted how report written by clergyman in Bangalore, miles away from event. (analysis = indicative of a middle-upper class educated people less narrow-minded)
2) not all politicians unduly triumphalist, gladstone thought GB needed to avoid new acquisitions and concentrate on developing the existing colonies, helping them towards self-government. Used this argument ito contrast against Disraeli ‘party of Empire’.
Counter Argue- However, in 1874 Disraeli won over Gladstone indicating that overarching opinion towards imperialism support.
‘The ruthless suppression of the 1857 Indian Mutiny was the main reason Indians did not challenge British rule in the years 1857 to c1890. Assess the validity of this view.
Identify ML
Para Topic Sentences
Evidence used for either side of argument
Analysis + Counter Arguments
Para 1 - Agree
TS - The ruthless British actions during the Indian Mutiny will certainly have deterred resistance and it destroyed a real alternative for the Indians.
1) Company forces led by Major William Hodson during mutiny 1857 executed Bahadur Shah II’s sons, the last Mughal Emperor (analyse - end bloodline hitherto ruled India, gave little alternative to Britain, if it wasn’t them it would be someone else’
2) end of the mutiny, 100,000 Indians dead, 66% of uprising troops dead, pigskin, cannon etc (hence psychological element fear to rise up again + didn’t have numbers to uprise again)
Para 2 - Disagree
TS - The British Raj became known as the ‘Golden Age’ of British rule because of the increase in policies aimed at appeasing Indians.
1)By 1880, 16,000 miles of railway built under British linking the cotton and jute-growing areas of the North with the mills of Bombay and Calcutta, (created jobs, railways benefited economy by integrating markets and trade increase)
2)Tea production increased from 1 plantation in 1851 to 295 plantations in 1871 (caused by British tea popularity, led to 100x increase in indian tea export which strengthened economy reducing opposition)
Para 3 -
TS - The British took measures to reduce the risk of a similar uprising occurring which was effective in reducing the Indian challenge
1) In 1858 the British Raj took over and reordered the army, mix caste, religion, mainly recruited from sikh who were most loyal during mutiny (analysis - reduces cohesion to stop reoccurrence)
2) proportion of British to Indian troops in the Indian Army was raised to 1:2. By 1890 the Indian Army was raised from 40,000 to 70,000 British troops and 125,000 natives.
(gave greater control, could limit the chance of rebellion reoccuring).
To what extent was Briiths policy in Egypt and Sudan defensive or expansionist?
ML: - Mostly defensive - 1875 - bought shares
Para 1 - Defensive
1) Gordon Governor-General relatively smoothly from 1877 into the 1880s, but 1883 a Mahdist nationalism took Khartoum in 1882 and in 1883 Colonel William Hicks was murdered. Gladstone reluctant to help Gordon who was in Khartoum, called for Sudan evacuation in 1884 instead. (analyse - signficant as defensive, gladstone understood not worth money / cost for little gain, could have simply committed more lives to shut it down and expand into Sudan but opted not to in favour of strong defence.
2) The 1882 Alexandria uprising placed British investment at risk thus defensive. PM Gladstone 37% investment in the Suez Canal. shared by many of his party members. In 1882 Pasha uprising reported in the newspapers as a great threat. (significant as gladstone vacillated for response until exaggerative reports alarmed investors who called for intervention. Can he held as defensive move to protect what he had already had.
Para 2 - Expansionist
1) William Hicks 1883 sent with force to crush Mahdists who captured Sudan capital. (aim expand their influence part of the ‘forward’ policy invasions to secure land for expansion. The aim behind the Mahdi forces was to liberate themselves from outside rule, not to expand outwards and threaten British Egypt for example, so this British action is mainly expansionist rather than defensive.
2) By 1896 Mahdists remained in control of Sudan and in 1896, under PM Salisbury, British campaign launched British troops into Sudan once more. continuation of the expansionist aims demonstrated 13 years prior, the aim was to assert British control over Sudan
(COUNTER ARGUE - change of Prime Minister to Salisbury in 1895 the reason for expansion into Sudan did indeed become a defensive one. He believed that Egypt was vital to the security of Britain’s sea-route to India which was an established view, but that reconquering Sudan needed to maintain Egypt’s security which renders the 1898 invasion of Sudan as a defensive measure.
(NEVERTHELESS - no real threat posed by Sudan as throughout the c13 years of Mahdi rule British interests had not been greatly threatened, expansionist still)
3) men on spot, Evelyn Baring 1882 consul general, approved 1883 Dufferin Report (create veiled protectorate british had power until 1907, british expansion of power in egypt)
‘British explorers were responsible for the increase in popular support for imperialism in Britain in the years 1857 to 1890’
ML
Para Topic Sentences
Evidence used for either side of argument
Analysis + Counter Arguments
ML - newspapers most important
Para 1 - Explorers
Evidence 1 - Richard Burton sturred up sanctimonious support, published 43 volumes on his exploration through 1857-90 including 5 books on West Africa on rituals, fetishes etc. (reinforced the notion of the ‘backward and ‘uncivilised’ nature of the indigenous peoples within the Empire. It caused greater self-confidence to support empire as the civilizers)
2) Explorer and missionary David Livingstone travelled to Africa 1866 to open up a path for Christianity. sent over 2000 letters back to Britain. (contained religious matters, observations on African customs, geography thrilled public)
(COUNTER ARGUMENT - letters published in newspaper which was more signficant. In 1866 when Livingstone missing Daily Telegraph funded search party - stirred up excitement - the newspapers painted him as a martyr for empire in 1873 when he died)
Therefore, missionaries important but enriched by vehicle of the newspaper.
Para 2 - Newspapers - exaggerated report created support for necessary ‘civilisation’
Evidence 1 - In 1857, during the Indian Mutiny, the Times paper reported that 48 English girls as young as 10 had been raped by Indian rebels in Delhi. (- articlewritten by clergyman in Bangalore but this did not matter because it sold papers and influenced public opinion. The distorted propaganda caused popular support for imperialism as the uncritical public believed that the indigenous peoples needed to be civilised, therefore, newspapers were certainly effective - due to exclusion of British atrocity)
Evidence 2 - In 1882 the ‘Daily Telegraph’ recounted that Arabi Pasha’s forces had killed all the Christians they could find’ (hit where it hurt public most, religion, made it easier for Gladstone to respond as public were enraged)
Exhibitions - cemented view of superiority + requirement for civilising
1) In 1886 the Colonial and Indian exhibition, live exhibits of Indians, 5.5 million attendees ( aimed to display wealth and development in Empire, high number indicative of effect it had,
COUNTER ARGUE - Whilst 5.5 million a lot, newspapers had millions, Daily Telegraph 300,000 circulation alone. Newspapers could continuously influence in the long term, adapting to changing circumstances.
‘The discovery of gold and diamonds was the most significant development in southern Africa in the years 1867 to 1902’ Assess the validity of this view.
ML
Para Topic Sentences
Evidence used for either side of argument
Analysis + Counter Arguments
Para 1 – Discovery of Gold and Diamonds
Evidence 1 - Until 1867 when diamonds were discovered in South Africa, the indigenous people had not extracted these resources as they did not have engineers or tools to extract them. This led to an influx of 30,000 British miners, significant as they helped develop the region. ( the influx of capital and mass British migration on the back of the new diamond and gold industries transformed the region and so affected both the Boer and African ways of life;
Point 2 - the region’s new wealth and strategic importance meant that there were more reasons for Britain to come into conflict with the Africans and Boers
Evidence 2- Cecil Rhodes was a company owner, by 1890 Rhodes owned 90% of the diamond mines in Kimberley.
Analysis 2 – This economic activity caused a continuous maltreatment of the Southern African peoples throughout 1857 to 1890. The rights of the Bantu peoples for example were limited, they were forced to live in segregated neighborhoods and relegated to menial labor if working in the mines.
Para 2 – development resulting from aim of federation
Point 1 - the federalist agenda of Carnarvon and Frere triggered the wars of the late 1870s and early 1880s.
Evidence 1 - In 1874, Sir Bartle Frere was sent to South Africa as High Commissioner for the British Empire to try and create a federation of South African states, Zulu King Cetshwayo was an obstacle in this course. Thus an ultimatum was given December 1878, rejected and British destroyed them taking control of Zululand.
Analyse 1 –Significant as 7000 Zulu killed, British government established colonial rule and implemented policies that favored European settlers over the native population.
Evidence 2 – Similarly, in 1880-1881 First Boer War was fought which resulted in Pretoria Convention, ending war in 1881. This gave Boer Transvaal given self-rule under British suzerainty.
Analysis 2 – Fought to further aim of federation, something which foreshadows 2nd Boer War.
Counter Argue – However, can be argued that it was the discovery in 1868 of huge mineral deposits of diamonds around Kimberley that underpinned this event, as it was on the joint borders of the Transvaal.
Para 3 – Colonial Administrators
Evidence 1 - In an attempt to overthrow Kruger’s Transvaal government, Cecil Rhodes produced the ‘Jameson Raid’ scheme in 1895. Aimed at overthrowing the Kruger regime, but failed, british rounded up by Kruger.
Analyse 1 - broke down relations as it emphasised that the British government were trying to remove Kruger from his position as Chamberlain ceded part of Bechuanaland to launch the attack from.
Evidence 2 - Government appointed High Commissioner of South Africa in 1897 Alfred Milner sat to negotiate in 1899 with Kruger on behalf of the British. Milner advocated granting full citizenship to the Uitlanders after five years’ residence. Kruger opposed the policy but was prepared to make concessions. Milner was not, claiming that “war has got to come”
Analysis 2 – Significant as it caused the Boer War, destroyed Boer society, 30k Boer dead, targeted Boer farms and infrastructure, which led to the destruction of crops, livestock, and property. Very significant development.
Counter – could be argued as underpinned by diamond and gold, 1902 JA Hobson famous economist referred to it as a ‘capitalist plot’.
‘Britain’s policies towards the peoples of Southern Africa were inconsistent in the years 1857 to 1890’
ML
Para Topic Sentences
Evidence used for either side of argument
Analysis + Counter Arguments
Para 1 - Agree
Point 1 – There was inconsistency regarding the treatment of the South African peoples as the British betrayed the Zulus whilst a different approach was taken with the Boers.
Evidence 1 – By 1877, British strong relations with the King Cetshwayo of the Zulus. By 1878 Bartle Frere issued an ultimatum to Cetshwayo which he failed to meet resulting in the British invasion of Zululand, destroying their aspirations for independence.
Analyse 1 – significant as it created an inconsistency of treatment between the South African peoples. done by the British to fulfil a bargain with the Boers following their annexation of the Transvaal. were willing to uphold a promise with one group of peoples whilst intentionally undermining their relationship with the other. ultimatum was designed to be impossible to satisfy, the Zulus were not given enough time to dismantle their military system which meant that the British were seeking to destroy the Zulus, not work with them. initially wanted a peace treaty but then declared war.
Point 2 - Policy towards Boers inconsistent
Evidence 2 - In the 1870s, Lord Carnarvon attempted to unite the colonies and republics into a self-governing dominion under the British flag, by 1877 Transvaal annexed.
Analysis 2 – This change of policy over the years can be held as an inconsistency as it suggests that the British policy towards South Africa wasn’t well thought out. The annexation of the Transvaal only lasted 4 years and 1884 London Convention granted their independence., and during this time self-government wasn’t even granted therefore it undermined the aims of Lord Carnarvon in the years only a few years prior.
Para 2 - Disagree - could be argued that British policies towards Southern African peoples were part of an overarching consistent strategic plan
Point 1 – Throughout 1857 to 1890 British policies consistently ensured that white British mining companies grew at the expense of the South African peoples.
Evidence 1 – Discoveries such as diamonds in South Africa in 1867, and gold rushes from 1886 brought in 30,000 British settlers and growing mining companies. Cecil Rhodes was a company owner, by 1890 Rhodes owned 90% of the diamond mines in Kimberley.
Analysis 2 – This economic interest caused a continuous maltreatment of the Southern African peoples throughout 1857 to 1890. The rights of the Bantu peoples for example were limited, they were forced to live in segregated neighborhoods and relegated to menial labor if working in the mines.
Evidence 2 - Throughout 1857 - 1890 Crown Lands Acts passed which allowed the British to strip land from locals for sake of British settler farming continued through 1889 British South Africa Company which were given power by the British to take land.
‘British imperial expansion in Africa, in the years 1875 to 1900, was driven by the challenge posed by other European countries’
ML
Para Topic Sentences
Evidence used for either side of argument
Analysis + Counter Arguments
ML - economic reasons drove imperial expansion in Africa
Para 1 - European Rivalry
Evidence 1 – In November 1885 the British annexed Bechuanaland. (why)
Evidence 2 – In 1876 the Brussels Conference occurred which ‘kick started’ the Scramble for Africa, and in 1884-5 the Berlin Conference established the ‘effective occupation policy’ which heightened the competition. The 10% of Africa that was under formal European control in 1870 increased to almost 90% by 1914.
In 1886 agreement that the British would get Zanzibar and the Germans would get Tanganyika. could be held as strategic to match the German expansion in this scramble, however, Zanzibar was a key trading island that facilitated commerce in the Indian Ocean region and provided cloves and ivory for Britain. Therefore, it was economics which drove this expansion.
Furthermore, without an economic stimulus, european countries wouldn’t even care to engage in the scramble for africa.
Para 2 - Economic reasons (main line)
Evidence 1 – 1875 Britain bought 44% of shares in the Suez Canal and William Gladstone himself had some 37% of his investment portfolio sunk in the Suez Canal. Outside of investment, the Suez Canal also reduced the route to India by 4500 miles.
Analysis 1 – caused the British to establish a veiled protectorate in Egypt from 1882 onwards to protect the benefit the Suez Canal offered. (what were the benefits of canal, what interest did Gladstone personally have?)
Point 2 – Great Depression 1873 to 1895, Britain had to turn to Africa to overcome economic downturn.
Evidence 2 – Britain informally expanded into Nigeria in 1890 and in 1900 North Nigeria was formally created by the British. Furthermore, the British expanded into Uganda making it a protectorate in 1894.
Analysis – This expansion was driven by economic imperatives, Nigeria received British manufactures and exported gold, palm oil and cocoa. Motives behind expansion into Uganda can be explained by its ability to provide coffee and rubber for Britain, the 1896 construction of the ‘lunatic line’ is also indicative of its economic value as this was aimed at opening up Uganda to imports and exports of tea and coffee.
Counter Argue – It could be argued that as Tropical Africa only imported 1.2% of British exports by 1890, economic reasons for expansion were less important.
However, the British were not particularly interested in corresponding trade with tropical regions of Africa, they were interested in exporting and this does not diminish their economic value. These countries were so economically significant as they produced ‘tropical goods’ that could not be grown in Europe but were in heavy demand, therefore, it was economic reasons behind the expansion into Africa.
Para 3 - Traders motives,
Evidence – Trader Cecil Rhodes used the De Beers Consolidated Mines and British South Africa Companies to expand the empire into Mashonaland in 1890 and the area which became Southern Rhodesia in 1900.
(analysis, explain personal moral motives but the counter argue economically).
Evidence – Bartle Frere annexed the Transvaal in 1877 and he deliberately provoked the Zulus in 1879 to cause a war that allowed the British to expand imperially.
‘To what extent did imperialism grow in popularity in Britain in the years 1872 to 1906?’
ML - continued to grow at a steady rate but suffered from unprecedented opposition in the process.
Para 1 – Did Grow
Point 1 – The increased consumption of pro-imperialist material
Evidence 1 – In 1896 the Daily Mail was created; pro-imperialist tabloid which reported extensively on the Boer War through a jingoist lens. By 1899 selling over 500,000 copies which rose to 1,000,000 in 1902.
Analyse 1 - 2x during the Boer War which was a drastically exaggerated affair in the paper, owner needed to sell papers, this worked.
Point 2 – Projects aimed at promoting imperialism to the youth
Evidence 2 – The Boys Brigade was founded in 1883 promoted the British Empire as the zenith of civilisation and reflected the attitudes towards other races, 1885 it described the black man as having ‘no growth in intelligence once manhood is reached’.
female counterpart named the Girls’ Own Paper which had a readership of 250,000 during 1890 to 1914.
Point 3 – Pro-imperialist themes
Evidence 3 – Across Britain, plays were shown which involved British imperial conflicts such as the Indian Mutiny of 1857-8, the Zulu War 1879, and the death of General Gordon (1885). Meanwhile, from 1872 entertainment at Music Halls as driven by imperialist themes.
Analyse 3 – popular amongst both the working and upper class peoples, therefore, it can be held that support for imperialism was ubiquitous
Para 2 – To argue that imperialism in Britain was fading in popularity in the years 1872 to 1906 would be only partially convincing as whilst there were losses of support, these were minor in relation to the bigger picture of imperial popularity.
Point 1 – The popularity of imperialism faded in the later years of 1872 to 1906.
Evidence 2 – By 1906, Conservative Party landslide defeat to Liberal Party. The Conservative Party campaigned for imperial preference in the 1906 election whilst the Liberals promoted social reform.
Analysis 2 – This is significant as demonstrates that the British public only supported imperialism on a superficial level, as soon as domestic benefits were offered, imperial preference would have caused inflation
Point 2 – Following the Boer War there was a decline in imperial popularity
Evidence 2 – In 1901, Emily Hobhouse reported concentration camps during the Boer War. She sent dozens of letters back to England, one of which stating how the indigenous in the concentration caps ‘went to sleep without any provision having been made for them and without anything to eat or to drink’.
Analysis 2 – This is significant as it helped to tarnish the allure of imperialism and its supposed civilising mission.
Nevertheless, she received scathing criticism and hostility from the British government and much of the media. More importantly, little was known about the camps despite her letters home which indicates that her voice was hidden beneath a broad swathe of imperial support. Therefore, whilst imperial popularity was declining amongst some, the majority opinion was still in favour of imperialism.
Point 3 – Contemporary commentators were becoming increasingly critical of imperialism in the later years of 1872 to 1906.
Evidence 3 – In 1902, economist J.A Hobson argued that imperial expansion was driven by a search for new markets and opportunities for the rich capitalists of Britain to make profits through investment.
Analyse 3 – This provoked debate and fed into socialist anti-imperialism, however, this does not prove that popular support was greatly declining. Hobson’s influence extended to a limited amount of people, the majority of the British public still supported imperialism and as mentioned before his voice was drowned by the cheering for imperialism in this period.
Therefore, opposition to imperialism was increasing but this was not significant enough to damage popular support. Whilst support for social reform over imperialism occurred in 1906, this does not diminish the support for imperialism. It declined as a political topic because there were greater issues to be discussed.
In the years 1858 to 1890, to what extent did British rule change India both economically and socially?
Large Extent – economically and socially
Evidence 1 - The expansion of telegraph lines continued in the following decades, and by 1890, the network had grown to over 44,000 miles. Similarly, the first railway in India was opened in 1853, and by 1880, there were over 15,000 miles of railway track in India.
Analysis 1 - facilitated the movement of goods and people, allowing for more efficient and widespread trade. This, in turn, contributed to the growth of India’s economy, as well as the expansion of British markets. They also provided employment for Indian people which was a social benefit.
Point 2 - The British also introduced modern systems of finance, and education to India which changed India both economically and socially.
Evidence 2 – In 1861, the first paper currency was introduced in India under Raj rule, which replaced the traditional system of barter and exchange. The Universities Act of 1857 established universities of Calcutta, Madras, and Bombay, and in 1860s Mary Carpenter helped open a women’s teacher training facility.
Analyse 2- paper currency helped the British colonial government to increase its revenue as it meant tax was easier to collect, furthermore it increased India’s economic integration as paper currency made it easier to conduct transactions with foreign traders and investors.
Furthermore, these universities played a significant role in changing India socially as they produced a new class of educated Indians who were exposed to Western ideas and values, and promoted opportunities for women which was a change.
Counter-Argue – However, despite post-mutiny education acts, universities etc, by 1872 96.5% of Indians were still illiterate.
Smallers Extent – economically and socially
Point 1 – limited infrastructure development that changed India for the good of the people.
Evidence 1 - While the British colonial government did invest in some infrastructure projects such as railways and telegraphs, the investment was often limited and driven by British interests. Following 1858, the British continued to crush the Indian textile industry as by 1870, British textiles accounted for 95% of the Indian textile market.
Analysis 1 - the imposition of high tariffs on Indian goods and the introduction of machine-made textiles from Britain had a devastating impact on Indian artisans and weavers, who were forced to compete with cheaper and more efficient British products.
‘British expansionism in Africa in the years 1890 to 1914 was driven primarily by strategic motives’. Assess the validity of this view.
Para 1 – Strategic Motives
Evidence 1 – Egypt (from 1883 veiled protectorate. Protectorate by 1914). By 1896, the Mahdists remained in control of Sudan and in 1896, under PM Salisbury, a British campaign was launched which sent British troops into Sudan and it became a Condominium in 1899.
Analyse 1 - Salisbury believed that Egypt vital to security sea-route to India also Sudan reconqueressential to maintain Egypt’s security which renders the 1898 invasion of Sudan as a strategic / defensive measure. There was also a greate requirement to protect the Indian Empire against the imagined Russian threat in Afghanistan – The Suez Canal enabled Britain to gain rapid access to India in times of trouble.
Evidence 2 – Britain fixated on acquiring Zanzibar in 1890 (when they made it a protectorate) to ensure that Germany did not acquire this important trading and strategic island off the coast of East Africa.
Analyse 2 - This could be held as strategic as the British wanted to match the German expansion in this scramble who had just acquiring Tanganyika, however, Zanzibar was a key trading island that facilitated commerce in the Indian Ocean region and provided cloves and ivory for Britain. Therefore, it could be argued that economics fulled this decision.
Para 2 – Economic Reasons
Evidence 1 – Britain had informally expanded into Nigeria in 1890 and in 1900 North Nigeria was formally created by the British. Furthermore, the British expanded into Uganda making it a protectorate in 1894.
Analysis 1 – Nigeria received British manufactures and exported gold, palm oil and cocoa. Uganda can be explained by its ability to provide coffee and rubber for Britain, the 1896 construction of the ‘lunatic line’ is also indicative of its economic value as this was aimed at opening up Uganda to imports and exports of tea and coffee.
Counter Argue 1 – It could be argued that as Tropical Africa only imported 1.2% of British exports by 1890, economic reasons for expansion were less important. However, the British were not particularly interested in corresponding trade with tropical regions of Africa, they were interested in exporting and this does not diminish their economic value. These countries were so economically significant as they produced ‘tropical goods’ that could not be grown in Europe but were in heavy demand, therefore, it was economic reasons behind the expansion into Africa.
Evidence 2 – Trader Cecil Rhodes used the De Beers Consolidated Mines and British South Africa Companies to expand the empire into Mashonaland in 1890 and the area which became Southern Rhodesia in 1900.
Analysis – He had an intent to acquire gold and coal from the region of Rhodesia. Mashonaland had great gold deposits hence his invasion in 1890. ambitions were dominated by the prospect of economic growth and the companies were ultimately mining companies, they were created to make money. Therefore, economic reasons were key drivers behind Cecil Rhodes’ decision to expand land in Africa and expand Britain’s Empire.
Para 3- Resistance from Indigenous Peoples drove expansion
Evidence 1 – In Uganda there was considerable resistance from King Mwanga who killed 30 Christian missionaries in the late 1880s. The British forced Mwanga to share power with the Imperial British East Africa Company in 1890 and in 1894 Uganda became a Protectorate.
However- The Uganda Railway was constructed from 1896 to 1902 which ensured British economic control of region – could be economically driven.
Evidence 2 – In Kenya, a dispute between the native Mazrui and Muslims occurred in the early 1890s, the British intervened to which Sheikh Mbaruk took up arms but led leaving the British in charge – allowing greater British control that before thus it became a Protectorate in 1895.
Analysis summary – However, it should be noted that both of these regions possessed considerable economic resources which the British were fearful would be lost to them if formal empire was not established. Uganda offered great opportunities for tea and coffee exports, and it connectedwith the temperate and fertile Kenya which was suitable for the production of cash crops such as coffee, tea, and cotton, which were in high demand in the global market.
‘The Boer War strengthened Britain’. Assess the validity of this view for the years 1899 to 1914.
ML - War ultimately strengthened Britain .
Strengthen (could do short term / long term format)
Point 1 – The Boer War strengthened Britain’s position in South Africa as it led to a closer relationship with the Boers.
Evidence 2 – In 1902 the Treaty of Vereeniging was granted to the Boers which gave £3 million in compensation in order to restore and restock the Boer’s farms which had been destroyed following Britain’s harsh ‘scorched earth’ policy.
Analysis 2 – This allowed a strong and harmonious relationship to develop in the long term, and there is a continuation of this in 1906 as the Transvaal was granted self-governing status. little conflict between the British on Boers following 1899-1901 region.
Point 2 - British public opinion rebounded after the end of the war, restoring imperial pride; the agonising over the war at the time did not last. The 1902 Treaty of Vereeniging was seen as a British victory by many.
Counter argue – However, these positives did not outweigh the negatives that the Boer War imposed on Britain. The stronger relationship came at a huge economic and military cost, an overpayment for what the British received.
Weaken
Point 1 - The length of the war and the humiliating failure of Britain’s military machine to deal promptly with 60 000 Boers was a shattering blow to national self-confidence
Evidence – Prior to 1899 the war was anticipated to have lasted three to four months, involving 75,000 troops, and costing no more than £10 million. By 1902, it had lasted three years, involved 400,000 troops, and cost £230 million.
Analysis –showed vulnerability of Britain’s imperial control. . The war also raised questions about the physical health of the working class as during recruitment, 40% of British recruits were unfit to fight.
Counter Argument 1 - However, it can be argued that this only weakened Britain in the short-term as in the long-term it led to a drive for ‘national efficiency’ which strengthened Britain. Following the realisation of the poor health of the working class men, free school meals were introduced in 1906, school medical inspections in 1907, and unemployment and health insurance was created in 1911. By 1914, WW1 had begun, a war which posed much greater risk to Britain’s welfare than the Boer War, but Britain’s forces were much healthier and stronger than they had been during the war a decade prior. Therefore, in the short-term the Boer War weakened Britain but in the long-term it strengthened her.
Point 2 – The Boer War weakened Britain’s position morally.
Evidence 2 – By the end of the war, 155,000 people were living in British concentration camps. 25% of this number had died in them during the war, mainly children. This caused activist Emily Hobson to visit the camps in 1900 which resulted in a report highlighting the atrocities of these conditions to Britain. This caused the British government to set up the Fawcett Commission to investigate her claims which corroborated her account of the shocking conditions.
Analysis 2 – This weakened Britain as the revelations of the horrors of the British concentration camps proved a humiliation, Britain were meant to be civilised and the quintessential example of morality. This completely undermined their position, and presented them as sanctimonious. CAN COUNTER ARGUE
Evidence 3 - The fact that the British army had to gather forces from across the Empire to deal with the war in South Africa meant that other parts of the Empire were exposed too, including crucial colonies such as India
‘To what extent was British rule challenged by indigenous peoples in India and North East Africa in the years 1890 to 1914.
Para 1 – British rule not greatly challenged
Point 1 - the downfall of the Mahdist regime in Sudan in 1898 initially welcomed by the Sudanese (because Mahdists ruined economy and 50% decline in populus due to famine and disease) British crushed subsequent discontent by making an example of the rebels–with swift hangings.
Point 2 - The British still had the ‘upper hand’ over this indigenous challenge
Evidence 2 - ,e.g. Indian/Egyptian nationalist press-censored in Press Act 1910 , British authorities banned the publication of the newspaper “Bande Mataram,” which was edited by the Indian nationalist leader Aurobindo Ghose. The newspaper was seen as a leading voice of the Indian nationalist movement and had a wide readership in India.
Point 3 – The British introduced policies that benefited the indigenous people, thus reducing the challenge.
Evidence 3 – In 1900 the Punjab Land Alienation Act was released which protected farmers from eviction due to debts. 1902 Aswan Dam completed in Egypt under General Baring, improved irrigation which provided a year round growing season. 1906 Gezeira Scheme which provided high quality cotton for British textile industry.
Role of Curzon as Viceroy who had a deep knowledge of India and an interest in its culture and Hstory. This contributed towards the Ancient Monuments Act which helped renovate the Taj Mahal in 1907 which helped tourism contributing to creation of more jobs. This also respected Indian tradition which reduced resentment.
Para 2 – British rule was largely challenged by indigenous peoples in North Africa and India over the years 1890 to 1914, but the British retained strong control despite this.
Point 1 – British rule was continuously challenged by indigenous peoples in North Africa over the years 1890 to 1914.
Evidence 1 – Indigenous Mahdist forces in Sudan challenged the British rule which culminated in the 1898 Battle of Omdurman. Despite Mahdist defeat, British attempts to create a western-style government (including a system of taxation) in Sudan brought hostility and tribal warfare; 33 punitive expeditions required to force tribesmen to accept the new order and 4 Mahdist uprisings 1900–1908.
Analysis 1 – Therefore,
Evidence 2 - The Denshawai incident in 1906 caused tensions against British rule as a British officer accidentally shot a woman in Egypt which caused a scuffle, within this scuffle a British officer died.
Analysis 2 This caused exemplary punishments, ranging from lashes to execution, that were to be carried out publicly at Dinshawai. This naturally led to greater resentment against the British, it served as example of British injustice and abuse of power which had continued throughout most of British rule.
British rule in Egypt challenged by the emergence of the Nationalist party from 1906
Point 2- There was a growing sense of middle class nationalism against British rule in India in the years 1890 to 1914.
Evidence 2 - ‘Young India’, 1903. There were nationalist attacks on British rule in papers and attempted assassinations of British officials–some high profile (Governor of Benghal;attempted assassination of Viceroy
However, despite this the continuation of British rule in both India and North East Africa showed the British were able to overcome any opposition therefore rule was challenged to a large extent, but not enough to pose any real threat.
‘The British Government was entirely to blame for the breakdown in British relations with the Boers in the years 1877 to 1902’. Explain why you agree or disagree with this view.
Para 1 – British government
Evidence 1 - following the discovery of diamonds in 1867 the British enforced annexation of Transvaal 1877. (analyse – this was a huge blow to Boer independence as it was part of Britain’s grand plan to build a Confederation of South African states with Britain as the dominant partner and the boers felt it was a violation of their independence and autonomy as they were largely self-governing and had their own political and legal systems, culminated in first boer war. )
Evidence 2 - In an attempt to overthrow Kruger’s Transvaal government, Cecil Rhodes produced the ‘Jameson Raid’ scheme in 1895. Government Colonial Secretary Joseph Chamberlain shared Rhodes’ desire to rid of the Kruger regime and he was complicit as evidenced by him ceding party of Bechuanaland to Rhodes’ British South Africa Company as a convenient base of attack. (analyse broke down relations as it emphasised that not only men on the spot, but the British government themselves were trying to remove Kruger from his position even using conniving means).
Evidence 3 – Government appointed High Commissioner of South Africa in 1897 Alfred Milner sat to negotiate in 1899 with Kruger on behalf of the British. Milner advocated granting full citizenship to the Uitlanders after five years’ residence. Kruger opposed the policy but was prepared to make concessions. Milner was not, claiming that “war has got to come”
Para 2 – Boer contribution
Evidence 1 –– There was talk of a Boer alliance with the Germans in SW Africa from 1884 and by 1895 over 5000 Germans were living in the Transvaal under pro-Kugerite community and German investment was soon in excess of 300 million marks. (this would certainly have frightened the British and Kruger would have known this, British relations were undoubtedly going to be weaked by this). This fear is evidenced by the annexation of Bechuanaland which was a buffer between the Boer and German states in South Africa.
Point 2 – Kruger intentionally created industry to damage British ambitions in South Africa.
Evidence - In 1894 Kruger opened a railway to Delagoa Bay obviating the need to use Cape Town for imports and exports. To make it more difficult for the Cape Colony, Kruger imposed steep haulage tariffs on the railway between Transvaal and cape Colony and then blocked the use of the drifts across Transvaal territory.
This damaged British trade and there was less reliance on the British industrially, this was done with intention therefore the Boers can be blamed for breaking down relations here.
Para 3 – Men on the spot
Evidence 1 - Cecil Rhodes’s scheme to back the Jameson Raid, of
1896 in an attempt to overthrow Kruger’s Transvaal government
Evidence 2 - 1899 Alfred Milner declared ultimatum
‘Joseph Chamberlain’s attempts to strengthen the British Empire ended in failure’ Assess the validity of this view with reference to the years 1895 to 1914
Agree
Evidence 1 - Chamberlain’s vision was the creation of an imperial federation, he believed that the imperial bonds needed strengthening if Empire was to be preserved. Closer union between Britain and its colonies. This was rejected at the Colonial Conferences of 1897 and 1902 , coloniues feared that a closer union with Britain would undermine their own political autonomy and that this was just an attempt to strengthen Empire
Evidence 2 - Tariff Reform proposed that favourable trade with the colonies would benefit Britain and reduce unemployment, he created the Tariff Reform League in 1903 with an aim of convincing the public of the need for this reform. His aim of convincing them failed as by 1906 he suffered a landslide defeat to the Liberals due to public fear of rises in cost of living.
Evidence 3 - Joseph Chamberlain shared Rhodes’ desire to rid of the Kruger regime and he was complicit as evidenced by him ceding part of Bechuanaland to Rhodes’ British South Africa Company as a convenient base of attack in 1895.(analyse) This complicity in the Jameson Raid discredited both Chamberlain and the Colonial Office and so undermined imperialism and weakened the Empire.
Disagree
Point 1 – As Colonial Secretary, Chamberlain was successful in promoting colonial development within the Empire.
Evidence 1 - 1896, Chamberlain ordered the construction of the 660 mile ‘Lunatic Line’ railway in Uganda. This was successful in strengthening the Empire as it protected the source of the River Nile against Britain’s potential enemies, facilitated the export of both tea and coffee and thus improved the economic power of Uganda.
Counter-argument – However, this could be counterargued as having weakened the British Empire as because of the line’s increasing financial burden, British officials sought to cut costs wherever possible. They used 20,000 coolies and by 1901 around 3000 had died. The working conditions were horrendous, the British did not attempt to mitigate the disease and heat exhaustion that was killing the workers, others were killed by lions. This will have caused a damaging cumulative effect on Britain’s reputation as during this time Emily Hobhouse had filed reports on the horrendous conditions of the concentration camps under the Boer War which was advocated by Chamberlain.
Evidence 2 - the Empire grew substantially under Chamberlain’s stewardship, oversaw Zanzibar acquisition in 1890, Uganda 1894 – the Boer War was won, the Transvaal and the Orange Free State became part of the Empire, and by 1910 the Union of South Africa had been established
‘Britain’s colonial administrators brought benefits to both Britain and the peoples they governed, in the years 1890 to 1914’. Assess the validity of this view.
Benefits to people governed?
Evidence – Viceroy Curzon introduced the Punjab Land Alienation Act of 1900 which protected farmers from eviction from their land due to debt, following this he established new famine codes which helped reduce the incidence of famine after 1900. (analysis – clear positives for people he governed, also a benefit for Britain as it was somewhat of a concession for a growing sense of nationalism at the time which reduced risk of challenge to british rule)
Evidence 2 – Colonial Administrator Eveyln Baring revitalized the Egyptian economy through improved irrigation and infrastucture. In 1902 he ordered the construction of the Aswan Dam and under his control the production of cotton and sugar trebled and the population increased from 7 to 10 million. (analyse – This dam enabled year round cultivation hugely significant benefit for the peoples he governed, as well as employment and drought protection. The increased production of cotton and sugar translated to increased trade, this contributed to the revitalization of the economy and quality of life which explains the increase in population.
Evidence 3 – Furthermore, Baring provided social benefit for the Egyptians. He improved conditions for labourers and introduced better sanitation and health services, and banned the slave trade in Egypt. (analysis – these positives were also benefits for Britain as it created less resentment which otherwise could have threatened the Suez Canal in the region, the maintenance of their control over it was paramount)
Not beneficial
Point 1 – Cecil Rhodes was primarily motivated by his own ambitions which often led to problems for Britain.
Evidence 1 – Cecil Rhodes was the key mover behind the Jameson Raid in 1895 as he believed that the Boer government was a threat to his business interests. Knock on effect with British reputation following this fiasco.
Alfred Milner - High Commissioner for South Africa from 1897, 1899 Bloemfontein Conference - Milner’s uncompromising attitude and refusal to consider any concessions requirement that all mining licenses be granted by the British South Africa Company, were seen as unreasonable and provocative by the Boers. Kruger agreed to grant uitlander right to vote after 5 years but Milner wasn’t reasonable. This was an ultimatum, called Britain to declare war - damaging for both Britain and Boers (25k africanaar boer war deaths)
‘British rule in India combined self-interest with an arrogant attitude of racial superiority towards the native population’ Assess the validity of this view with reference in the years 1857 to 1900.
Agree
Point 1 - The British also demonstrated their arrogance of racial superiority through their denigration of Indian culture and traditions
Evidence 1 - The Universities Act of 1857 established universities of Calcutta, Madras, and Bombay. This was a British education system aimed to create a class of Western-educated Indians who would be loyal to the British government. The curriculum was designed to promote British cultural values and traditions, while devaluing Indian ones, creating perfect candidates for
Could talk about self-serving nature of ICS.
Analyse 1 – This was an act of both self-interest and racial superiority as firstly, the British wanted to create a class of educated Indians who would be capable of serving as clerks, interpreters, and other low-level administrative positions. This created a pool of cheap labor for the British, which was essential for the functioning of the colonial administration. Secondly, this meant that Indian cultural practices, beliefs, and knowledge were often overlooked or dismissed as backward and irrelevant which it the epitome of British arrogance.
Point 2 – British self-interest mixed with racial superiority can also be discerned through the economic policies imposed on the Indian people.
Evidence 2 – Throughout the years 1857 to 1900, the system of land revenue settlements was used by the British. This imposed high tax on Indian farmers, assessed using fertility of land which was often inaccurate leading to an unreasonable amount of tax. This resulted in widespread poverty and indebtedness, and thus resentment.
Analyse 2 – This is indicative of a notion of racial superiority and arrogance as they clearly had no respect for the lower classes or their intelligence, they believed that they could get away with imposing such harsh policies because of their arrogant whiteness.
Point 3 – Divide and rule used through religious insensitivity
Evidence 3 - The British implemented policies that favored one religious community over another. The British government appointed Indians to its legislative council, but the representation was not equal between Hindus and Muslims. In 1861, the Indian Councils Act increased the number of Indians who could serve on the council, but only Hindus were eligible for election. It wasn’t until 1892 that Muslims were granted separate representation through the creation of a Muslim-majority electoral district.
Disagree
Could put education act here and then counter argue.
The British government and administration in India made significant efforts to provide relief during famines and other natural disasters. For example, during the devastating famine of 1876-1878, the British government provided extensive relief efforts that saved the lives of many Indians. Suspended taxes, gave significant medical aid and improved sanitation, provided food.
How significant were the two world wars in strengthening trade and commerce between Great Britain and its Empire in the years 1914 to 1947?
Significant-
Point 1 – The two world wars were key in changing patterns of trade which strengthened commerce between Great Britain and its Empire in the years 1914 to 1947.
Evidence 1 – Great Britain was forced to abandon the Gold Standard in 1931 so trade with the Empire in sterling provided a great asset. Most of the countries of the Empire fixed the value of their currencies to sterling and some kept their national reserves in Sterling which. This strengthened trade and commerce between Great Britain and its Empire as it gave access to the British market for countries in the Sterling Area whilst ensuring a profitable outlet for British overseas investment at a time when most other international opportunities were closed down. The abandonment was forced by the Great Depression which was caused by the postwar conditions of WW1.
Point 2 - impact of the Second World War was to heighten the need to rely on trade between Great Britain and its Empire and a new emphasis was placed on colonial economic development.
Evidence 2 – Following the loss of major colonies in South East Asia to Japan from 1942 in the WW2, Britain wanted to reassert itself. Following the Colonial Development and Welfare Act of 1940 rubber and tin industry of Malaya received heavy government investment as the British hoped that this would earn large amounts of foreign currency and benefit international trading position as these resources could command major international markets. This strengthened trade and commerce between Great Britain and its Empire as Malaya were reliant on rubber and tin exports for their survival, and Britain wanted to reestablish its global presence.
Evidence 3 - Post WW1, Britain received states in Middle East and Africa following Treaty of Versailles 1920 - German and Ottoman colonies for reparations.
Analysis 3- This gave Britain over 13 million more people to trade with, new territories and mandates provided new markets for British goods and services. For example, Iraq, which was placed under British control, had significant oil reserves, which became a valuable resource for Britain.
Less significant -
Point 1 - Britain lost some imperial trade as a result of the First World War – particularly in India and Canada and these were not entirely recovered after the war
Evidence 2 – Canada benefitted from the war, emerging as an industrial power because of the demand its resources receieved during the war from Britain and its allies. However, after the war, this demand dropped which led to Canada looking to its southern neighbour, the USA, for investment and markets as the interwar period progressed as they were proximate and had a booming economy with a large consumer market.
Evidence 3 - WW1, India contributed £146 million to war effort thus inflation followed. Long term damage to trade. Trade in manufactures with India dropped from a surplus of £75 million in 1924 to £22.7 million in 1937 - here the cost of controlling a colony massively outstripped its potential or actual value, imperial control was abandoned as in India 1947,
Evidence 4 - WW2 had a significant impact on trade, 54% of British merchant shipping was destroyed in the war making it difficult to trade with the Empire.
