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Question

To what extent were different social groups in Britain affected by the Empire in the years 1914 to 1947?

Answer 1

Working Class Men Evidence 1 - The Empire provided opportunities for working-class people to emigrate to the colonies to find work, colonies offered employment in agriculture, mining, and manufacturing particularly during the interwar period when unemployment was high in Britain. Between 1919 and 1939, around 2.5 million people emigrated from Britain to the colonies. Counter Argue - However, by the later years of the 1940s, this number began to decline which can be understood as the living standards in Britain were beginning to increase, especially following the 1945 Labour election which focused on domestic policy and post-war reconstruction. Therefore, Empire provided a short-term alternative to enduring problems at home, but in the long-term its allure was fading. Evidence 2 - Working class conscripted to support Empire - Between 1916 and 1918, around 2.5 million men were conscripted into the armed forces. Many working-class men were sent to fight in colonial territories, including India, Egypt, and Mesopotamia. Similarly during WW2 many working-class men were sent to fight in colonial territories, including North Africa, the Middle East, and Southeast Asia to defend against axis powers who sought to carve out Britain’s colonial empire. Conclude – Therefore, whilst there were some job opportunities within Empire, this only affected a small proportion of working class, furthermore, it was short lived. The main impacts were negative ones, conscription etc, sure there was patriotism but this wasn’t a real benefit. Women Evidence 1 –. I.e 1926 Empire Marketing Board – promoted the British public to buy goods from the Empire Evidence 2 – Women often affected by Empire’s advertising, by 1924, 500,000 radio handsets in homes, by 1947 nearly every home had radio sets. Significant as radio used by The BBC to promote propaganda, in collaboration with the Empire Marketing Board, in 1928 started ‘Household Talks’ which encouraged women once more to use and buy goods from empire. Analysis 1 + 2 - However, despite advertising campaigns many of the dominions asserted that these advertisements had little effect on their exports. Evidence 3 - Political activism: The Empire also played a role in the rise of feminist and anti-colonial political activism in Britain. Women’s suffrage and women’s rights movements were growing during this period, and many feminists saw the connections between imperialism, patriarchy, and gender inequality. Some women also became involved in anti-colonial activism, particularly around issues such as Indian independence and the struggle against apartheid in South Africa. Upper Class Evidence 1 - Members of the affluent middle classes with family members employed in colonial service, or others involved in trade with Empire, were more natural to support it. The historical study of Empire became established with special professorships in Imperial History at Cambridge (1919). Analysis – This level of university was almost exclusively comprised of upper-middle class peoples. It is significant as it trained colonial servants to enter Empire as it had been for over 100 years. Empire continued to provide opportunities for the upper class peoples. Evidence 2 - The British upper class had significant political influence in shaping British colonial policy. Many members of the upper class held positions of power in the government, and were involved in shaping policies related to the empire. For example Evelyn Baring, say of the aristocratic Egypt Evelyn Baring, could follow right in his footsteps and became governor of Rhodesia in 1942 to 1944.

Answer 2

Agree Evidence 1- In 1919, the British released the Government of India Act which established a diarchy which gave Indians full control over self-government, education and the health service. While this appeared to be an act made to prepare Indians for independence, it was a carefully crafted example of divide and rule. The Indians would have little experience dealing with these affairs, therefore they would likely make errors and the Indian people would call for the British again. There is a continuation of the divide and rule in the 1935 Government of India Act. This extended the franchise from 7 – 35 million and broadened the amount of political parties. This would reduce the risk of a dominant party emerging to count the British therefore it was designed to maintain British rule for a long as possible. Evidence 2 – Following the increase in nationalist sentiment, two ‘Round Table’ conferences were established in 1930 and 1931. These were peace conferences organized by the British Government and Indian political personalities to discuss constitutional reforms in India. Analyse 2 - This appears to be a proposal for reforms for a change in India’s status however both meetings failed as the British still were not willing to make the most fundamental change in India’s status – self-governing dominion status. They still doubted their capabilities and wanted to retain control because of India’s economic and strategic importance. Therefore, there was little change in the intention behind the reforms. Point 3 – response of repression to Indian nationalism/protest revealed resolve Evidence 3 – 1919 Amritsar Massacre. Rioting in the Punjab led the British army to fire upon a crowd of Indians protesting at the arrest of nationalist leaders. Around 800 Indians were murdered. Could also use 1919 Rowlett Act as its key purpose was to strike down nationalist uprising (gave greater powers to authorities to arrest and imprison anyone who spoke against the British) Disagree Evidence 1 – Cripps Mission in 1942. Churchill recognised the vulnerability of Empire in India and sent a Labour member to promise Indians full Dominion status. Analyse 1 – This is certainly a reform which was designed to bring a fundamental change in India’s status. That being said, this was only released in the period shortly after WW2 had started and the Empire was extremely vulnerable in India. Therefore, it could be held as another policy aimed at preventing fundamental change as dominion status was a compromise in the face of full independence. Evidence 2 – Simon Commision? - 1929 - proposed provinces should be given more power – however, power still held by Viceroy in areas of defence, foreign affairs ,internal affairs, security – So this was little change in the bigger picture

Answer 3

ML – The First World War was largely followed by the expansion of the Empire and a small degree of contraciton, however, the Second World War this contraction was accelerated on a major scale. WW1 Point 1 - Opposition to the war and the self-confidence created by WWI threatened the future of the Empire. Evidence 1 – Ireland – because of the WW1, Irish volunteers chose to strike against the British. This resulted in the 1916 Easter Uprising which was quickly suppressed, but guerilla resistance ensued until 1921 when the British signed the Anglo-Irish treaty, creating a self-governing Free Irish State which was granted dominion status. Analysis 1 – This was the first real sign of Empire’s contraction as Britain’s oldest colony was lost. This wasn’t catastrophic for the British, however, as the Northern Irish opted to remain under British sovereignty. Evidence 2 – Egypt – As the Ottoman Empire, which had previously controlled Egypt, was on the losing side of the war – the British could establish it as a Protectorate in 1914, expanding the Empire. However, turning point when WW1 impacts hit. Sir Henry McMahon in Egypt stated in 1917 that "the prices of food have soared to unprecedented heights” and thus the food situation in Egypt was critical. This caused starvation which led to nationalist Zaghlul to spearhead the Egyptian Revolution of 1919, as it came to be known, which marked a turning point in Egyptian history and is widely regarded as the beginning of the country's struggle for independence from British colonial rule as the whole nation revolted. However, by 1922 Egypt was granted formal independence. Counter Argue 1 – That being said, the British contraction was somewhat ostensible as Egypt continued to be a client state until 1954. Evidence 3 – Iraq – Britain ruled Iraq as a mandated territory for 12 years after 1920, providing British protection for a monarchical rule of the Hashemites. However, following the 1916 McMahon-Hussein Correspondence in which the British promised they were willing to support Arab independence in exchange for Arab support against the Ottomans during WW1. This was agreed, yet undermined by the Briitsh Sykes-Picot agreemen, causing a rising sense of nationalism. The country descended into instability, the Kingdom of Iraq was granted independence in 1932. Analyse 3 – It could be argued that this contraction was therefore brought on by WW1. However, under the new King Faisal Britain retained close economic and military ties with Britain, which retained air bases in the country. Therefore, there was contraction which started following WW1, but this wasn’t to a great degree. WW2 Evidence 1 – The war left the British under acute pressure in Palestine. By 1939, with war imminent and fears of an Italian attack on Egypt, Britain called for a Palestinian state in which Jews currently living in the country could enjoy the right to a ‘national homeland’ which outraged the Jews. Furthermore, during 1941 and 1945, the policy of the holocaust which was aimed at murdering all the Jewish population in Europe led to an exodus of Jews arriving in Palestine. This caused great domestic tension, and by 1945 the Arab-Jewish relations were so bad that the British were forced to hand this problem over to the United Nations. Analyse 1 – Therefore, WW2 accelerated the contraction of Empire here as it led to British policymaking that increased resistance to the point where it had t Palestine had to be abandoned. Evidence 2 – During WW2, Burma was occupied by the Japanese but when the Burmese Anti-Fascist Organisation and Aung San-led Burmese National Army realised that their independence was more likely to be achieved with the British, they worked alongside them to rid the country of Japanese in 1945. By 1946, mounting civil disobedience and the increasingly ungovernability of the country prompted the appointment of a more liberal Hubert Rance, who not only admitted Aung Sang intop the Executive Council but virtually placed him in charge of it. By 1946, PM Attlee declared that the government were not willing or able to commit sufficient troops in the country, it became independent in 1948. Point 3 - The financial impact of the Second World War and the declining economic importance of India, played a role in Britain’s decision to leave India. Evidence 3 – Following WW2, India suffered from great inflation and shortages which meant they could no longer be the great market for British cotton exports as they once had been, so the cost of holding onto it would massively outstrip any economic benefits. The Labour government realised this in 1945 which contributed towards their reasons for declaring withdrawal from India and granting independence in 1947.

Answer 4

Agree - Point 1 – In Egypt, Britain was forced as they did not intend to leave anytime soon. the Suez Crisis of 1956 demonstrates Britain trying, and failing, to keep a presence in Egypt Evidence 1 - Under the 1954 Anglo-Egyptian Agreement, the British agreed to remove troops gradually from the canal zone. However, by 1956 after Nasser nationalized the Suez. In response the British secretly hatched the ‘Protocol of Sevres’ plan with the French and Israelis which resulted in Britain deploying 1000s of troops to defend the ‘security’ of the Suez Canal. Analysis 1 – This is significant as the canal never was at real threat, the plan created a threat by engaging the Israelis in battle with the Egyptians to justify Anglo-French intervention. Therefore, Britain clearly wanted to maintain control of the Suez Canal and thus Egypt. It was only until the USA refused to support sterling in the currency crisis did the British leave, thus they were forced. Point 2 - The use of violence by Britain led to calls for decolonisation. Evidence 2 – Between 1952 and 1956, the British detained 81,000. Many detainees were interrogated and the camps in which they were held had horrendous conditions. In 1959, the East African Standard reported on these conditions which suggested ten men had died from drinking contaminated water. Analyse 2 – This echoes Emily Hobhouse’s reports on the Boer War camps 50 years prior. It similarly caused condemnation and and highlighted that colonial governments were poorly equipped to deal with these movements which led to apprehension. The use of violence by Britain resulted in international and domestic condemnation which put Britain under pressure to decolonize. Furthermore, the British understood that such an event could not reoccur in the later years of the 1950s as they were economically reliant on the USA, they could not longer risk suffering USA condemnation. Point 3 – The Nationalist movement in Nigeria forced their independence from Britain. Evidence 3 – Nigeria suffered from great religious and ethnic divisions. Nationalist pressure caused the MacPherson Constitution of 1951 which created a National Council of Ministers answerable to 185 seats in a House of Representatives. This stimulated the growth of Nigerian political parties which represented these different ethnicies and religions. Analyse 3 – This is significant as caused greater tensions between these groups and thus greater internal political instability. This resulted in the British making more and more concessions to these groups and more and more power was devolved to the various regional governments. Therefore, this climate effectively forced Britain into a position which meant that it was easier just to grant independence. Final point – ultimately, British decision to reject 1957 EEC membership, which aimed to foster economic integration with its European members, and suggests that Britain continued to rely on Empire. The believed in their superiority, and a notion that they did not ‘need’ the assistance of the other countries but instead they could rely on the Empire for this support. Disagree - Point 1 – Following WW2 British had to reassess their decisions relating to the efficiency of Empire, leading to optional withdrawal. Evidence 1 – By 1947, after the Second World War, Britain was in a poor economic state, so they had to make strong choices regarding spending priorities. In East Africa, Tanganika, the British invested £49 million in 1948 into a development scheme to make profits. This failed, lowering the hopes of surrounding peoples and causing an increase in nationalist sentiment. Analysis 1 - Due to their understanding of its low economic value and the growing nationalist movement, they contiously granted concessions over the following years until independence in 1961 in Tanganyika, in control of process, took it gradual as intended. Evidence 2 - the election of the Labour Government in 1945 on a domestic platform demonstrates that decolonisation was a deliberate policy, they were a party with no ideological commitment to empire, focused on domestic reform and improvement not empire. Analysis 2 - While the process of decolonization continued under subsequent Conservative governments, the 1945 Labour government played an important role in setting the stage for decolonization and laying the groundwork for the end of British colonialism in the post-World War II era through negotiation with African nationalists etc. Point 3 – It could be argued that violent nationalist groups themselves pushed the British out. Evidence 3 – The previously mentioned Mau Mau nationalists escalated murders in 1952, using extreme violence against the white settlers which caused the British to call for a State of Emergency and placed Britain in an awkward moral position. Analyse 2 – This appears to be a successful step towards pushing the British out of the country, however, the British responded by killing 10-11,000 of these nationalist uprisers. This is significant as it indicates that if Britain had wanted to stay in a colony, they were able to. Point 3 – Winds of change speech indicated that the British government were choosing to leave. Evidence 3 – In 1960 PM Macmillan made the Winds of Change speech which conveyed decolonisation as a collaborative policy with the nationalist movements to prepare them for independence and that this was a gift. Analyse 3 / Counter Argue – However, this isn’t an accurate representation of how the British managed decolonisation. The pace set by the British was usually far too slow for the nationalists, which often compelled the British to move much faster than originally intended. This can be evidenced by the progress under Sir Andrew Cohen. In 1947 he produced the Cohen Report setting out a new direction for colonial policy through slow and gradual reform. However, by 1952 he was Governor of Uganda and by 1962 Uganda was independent. He noted that this was much faster than he had originally hoped for, and definitely much slower than the British had planned for. Many other African nations followed suit at this rate. Therefore, they were forcing decolonisation at a much greater rate than the British wanted.

Answer 5

Disagree Evidence 1 – In 1957, the EEC was founded which was aimed at fostering economic integration with its European members to strengthen the participants economy. Britain showed no interest in joining this group whilst all of the other major powers in Europe signed to join. Analyse 2 – This is significant in understanding how Britain’s interest in Empire continued, as if they weren’t interested in this group, they must have been confident in relying on the Empire. Evidence 2 (extension of first point) - Britain showed great interest by promoting colonial development schemes. In 1948 the Colonial Development Corporation was established to co-ordinate major projects and develop self-sustaining agriculture. By 1956, the British colonies within Empire were exporting £1485 million worth of goods. Analyse 2 – This is significant as it clearly shows a reliance on Empire for trade and thus a continuation of interest as they sought to engage in as much trade as possible to compete with the EEC. Point 3 – The process of decolonisation was reluctant on behalf of the British as they promoted economic ventures and resisted nationalism in the process. Evidence 3 – East Africa - In Tanganyika the British invested £49 million in 1948 into a development scheme to make profits. This failed, lowering the hopes of surrounding peoples and causing an increase in nationalist sentiment. This, combined with the long-simmering Kikuyu grievances at their treatment from white settlers, caused the explosion of violence in the Mau Mau Rebellion from 1852-60. The British responded brutally by murdering 10,000 of these. Analysis 3 – This is significant as it indicates that Britain’s interest continued in Empire. They still had economic interest in Africa and were willing to risk their reputation of high moral standards, as well as British troops, to maintain control of East Africa and its role in Empire. Agree Point 1 – Imperial themes began to fade in Popular Culture indicating a loss of interest in Empire. Evidence 2 – The ‘Eagle’ magazine (1950 onwards), explicitly informed writers that foreigners were not to be depicted as enemies or villains, any group of children must include one child from an ethnic minority. Big difference to Boys' Own Paper 70 years prior. Point 2 – The British public produced a sense of aversion towards the emigrants from the Empire and thus its opinion fa Evidence 2 – The British Nationality Act in 1948 granted full British citizenship to every inhabitant of Empire in recognition of their wartime contribution causing a huge growth in colonial immigrants. As issues surrounding employment became popularly blamed on these immigrants, gangs emerged such as the ‘Teddy Boy’ youths in 1958 and political movements such as Mosley’s Union Movement which promoted curbing immigration, a policy which was supported by 90% of the British public in a 1962 poll. Analysis 2 – This is significant as it explains why pro-imperialist sentiment was on the decline in the second half of the 19th century. The racist attitudes were strongest within working class communities, as these immigrants were believed to be taking jobs, housing, health care etc the people did not want to support the Empire and a constant stream of people comign from it. Therefore the British public had lost their interest. Evidence 1 - In 1960 PM Macmillan made the Winds of Change speech which conveyed decolonisation as a gift as Britain were choosing to abandoned Empire through a supposed loss of interest. The process of Decolonisation could be interrogated to show that Britain often gave up itscolonies with considerable reluctance, and that British governments and administrators were far from disinterested in the process.

Answer 6

Para 1 – Change Point 1 - there was considerable change in Britain’s colonial policy during this period regarding the economic emphasis put on the Empire. Evidence – Immediately after WW2, Britain hoped that the Empire and the Commonwealth could restore Britain’s economy hence why she didn’t join the EEC in 1957. However, by 1960 Western Europe was catching up to the amount of trade with the commonwealth and by 1965 Western Europe accounted for 32.5% of British exports, 5% more than the Commonwealth. Britain applied to the EEC in 1963 and 1967 but was rejected both times. Analysis 1 – Due to exports to Europe outstripping those to the Empire countries, Britain application to the EEC indicates a change in policy, they were realising the fading value of the Empire and its colonies and thus turned to Europe which was not common within British policy making. Point 2 – Whilst decolonisation appeared to occur at a constant rate, the process changed on a case by case basis as the attitudes of colonial administrators differed greatly. Evidence 2 – In Kenya Britain had formerly relied on devolving power to the tribal chiefs under the watch of a British official. Now, under Administrator Evelyn Baring, Operation Jock Scott had been launched in 1952 which arrested suspected Mau Mau and took power back. Similarly in Malaya it was no longer possible to rely on the Malay sultans in the conditions of the Malayan Emergency from 1948 to 1960. Analyse 2 – This contrasts which the colonial policy used in Uganda and Nigeria at the same time. In Uganda, admin Andrew Cohen issued a report in 1947 which set out a new direction towards gradual reform for independence and strongly believed in listening to nationalists. In Nigeria 1950 John Macpherson opened up the higher levels of colonial administration for the Nigerians and he aimed at managing the transition smoothly to indepndence. Therefore, the colonial policy relating to the colonies was clearly inconsistent when looked at on a case by case basis. The British sometimes used repression whilst in others they used diplomacy and concession. Para 2 – Continuity Evidence 1 – There was a continuation of gradual decolonisation across 1947 to 1967. This process can be understood to have begun following WW2 in India 1947, one year later Ceylon became independent, same in Sudan 1956, Nigeria 1960, Kenya 1963, Gambia 1965. Analyse 2 – This process was continuous, although reasons ranged from economic, moral, strategic and political. Whilst the reasons may not be the same, the colonial policy continued, it was consistent with its pace of decolonisation which links in with the next point. Point 2 - Britain was determined to decolonise at its own pace and consistently used violence and repression against nationalist movements. Evidence 2 – In Kenya, Britain was reluctant to grant independence. They saw this region as being ideal for economic development as seen in the Tanganyika Groundnut Scheme which ended in 1951 at a cost of £49 million, and valuable in its fertile lands which British settlers used, forcing indigenous farmers onto infertile land. This caused the explosion of violence in the Mau Mau Rebellion from 1852-60. The British responded brutally by murdering 10,000 of these uprisers. akin to Egypt 1956? Analyse 3 - Evidence 3 - By 1947, ethnic tensions were so high that the British had to abandon its original plan for a Malay Union. In the 1948 they introduced the Federation of Malaya which greatly restricted the Malay people and devolved their power, naturally this caused greater resistance leading to the State of Emergency being declared in 1948 which empowered the colonial authority to use military force to impose order on the country. Analyse 3 – Similarly to Kenya, Malaya was a major contributor to the Hard Currency Pool within the Sterling Area and its rubber proved a crucial dollar earner. This reliance on violence and repression to ensure the slow pace of decolonisation clearly is a consistent continuation throughout areas of economic importance.

Answer 7

Agree Point 1 – The British public produced a sense of aversion towards the emigrants from the Empire and thus Empire itself. Evidence 1 – The British Nationality Act in 1948 granted full British citizenship to every inhabitant of Empire in recognition of their wartime contribution causing a huge growth in colonial immigrants. As issues surrounding employment became popularly blamed on these immigrants, gangs emerged such as the ‘Teddy Boy’ youths in 1958 and political movements such as Mosley’s Union Movement which promoted curbing immigration, a policy which was supported by 90% of the British public in a 1962 poll. Analysis 1 – This is significant as it explains why pro-imperialist sentiment was on the decline in the second half of the 19th century. The racist attitudes were strongest within working class communities, as these immigrants were believed to be taking jobs, housing, health care etc the people did not want to support the Empire and a constant stream of people comign from it. Therefore the British public had lost their interest. Point 2- imperial traditions were fading in popularity Evidence 2 - Each Empire Day, millions of school children from all walks of life across the length and breadth of the British Empire would typically salute the union flag and hear tales from Empire. By 1958, Empire day ended and replaced with Commonwealth Day. Analysis 2 – This was something different, commonwealth is not Empire. Empire was a symbol of Britain’s power and its control over the world whilst Commonwealth is a free association group by which were not ruled by Britain. The significance of the termination of such a momentous event indicates that the political climate was no longer one in great support of Empire, this name change was the politically correct thing to do in a time when Empire was coming to its end. Point 3 – Popular literature was moving away from pro-imperialist values. Evidence 3 – The ground-breaking comic ‘Eagle’ published first in 1950 explicitly informed its writers that foreigners were not to be depicted as either enemies or villains and that at least one child in any group of people should be from an ethnic minority. Analyse 3 - Children's stories and comics such as the Boys’ Own Paper had championed British values and support for the Empire, whereas this was clearly changing by the 1950s. This change could be indicative of a changing outlook on peoples of Empire amongst the public, or more likely, that following the influx of the peoples included in the stories, the caricature imagery presented in the literature was being recognised as propaganda. Disagree Evidence 1 – The British Empire Games were hugely popular, the 1958 games had an attendance of 245,000 people. These games started by recognising that the participants are loyal subjects of His Majesty the King, Emperor, and will take part in the British Empire Games in the spirit of true sportsmanship. Analysis / Counter Argument 1 – This appears to be a continuation of the pro-imperialist grandeur experienced hitherto 1950. However, support for the Empire games should not be mistaken for support for Empire. The British people cared for the competitive nature of the sport, not the branding of the event. Naturally, there was a continued sense of patriotism and support for the British but this was not the jingoism that supported Britain’s imperial actions. Evidence 2 - Many white Britons emigrated into the commonwealth and empire. Between 1947 and 1957, approximately 1 million people left Britain for its dominions. Analysis 1 – This indicates that many British people still had interest in the Empire, they wanted to explore it and seek wealth just as the white settlers had done over the course of Empire. Counterargue 1 – However, as living standards improved throughout the 1950's, emigration ceased- only showing interest to improve their lives

Answer 8

Agree Point 1 – The post WW2 position in relation to the USA was significant in causing decolonization Evidence - Britain emerged from war heavily dependent on the USA for defence and economic support. In 1945 Britain borrowed $4.34bn from the USA so they were in serious debt. This meant that the British could not afford to damage their relationship with them as seen in Palestine. The British were faced with disorder because of Jewish emigration to Palestine, so to avoid being in the USA’s bad books the British referred the issue to the United Nations in 1947. Analysis 1 – USA was anti-imperialist; Britain was therefore subject to some US pressure to speedup decolonisation. British could have continued to use repressed to mitigate pressure from nationalist groups but international position theat drove their decision. Point 2 – Following WW2, India decolonisation could be held as a result of changing position. Evidence 2 – Following WW2, the Labour Government was elected in 1945 with a landslide majority over the Conservatives as domestic issues were prevalent. The Labour Government was more averse to Empire and was more focused on domestic policy and had no ideological commitment to keeping India. The result reflected the voters’ belief that Labour would be more successful rebuilding Britain and carrying through social reform. As the Labour government were the ones to call the withdrawal from India in 1947 it could be argued that Britain chose to decolonise following greater focus on domestic issues, not because of nationalism. Point 3 – This links with how the impact of war on the British economy made it reassess the benefits of colonial possessions Evidence 3 – Following WW2, India suffered from great inflation and shortages which meant they could no longer be the great market for British cotton exports as they once had been, so the cost of holding onto it would massively outstrip any economic benefits. The Labour government realised this in 1945 which contributed towards their reasons for declaring withdrawal from India and granting independence. Counter-Argue – However, India’s economic instability over the years 1918 – 1947 caused by nationalists exacerbated the lack of economic benefits for Britain from India. For example, nationalist Gandhi promoted boycotts in 1920 and urged Indians to withdraw their children from British-run schools, boycott the law courts, quit their colonial government jobs, and continue to refuse to buy imported cloth. There was a continuation of this in the Salt March of 1930 which led to similar boycotting on a national scale. Manufactures dropped from £75 million in 1924 to £22 million in 1937 which was a reflection of the success of Indian boycotting of British textiles. This had a compound effect on economic issues S Disagree Evidence 1 – In Burma 1940s, the violent activities of the Nationalists and the ascendancy of the AFPFL, led by Aung San , led Attlee to hasten British withdrawal since he had insufficient troops to re-impose British authority in 1946. Analyse 1 – This is significant as he did not intend for this, he originally planned a programme of measured and slow steps to independence, but the breakdown of order following nationalist actions hastened British withdrawal. Counter Argue 1 – However, the reason he had insufficient troops was because of the poor position the Britain were now in following WW2. Furthermore, British rule was disrupted during the Japanese occupation of much of the country during World War II and as it did not provide much economic benefit, in a time of economic deprivation, it was not worth taking. Therefore WW2 greater contribution of nationalist groups. Evidence 2 – Ethnic divisions caused by British, led to nationalists between 1952 and 1954, both the Malays and Chinese united against British rule and together won 81% of the votes in the federal elections of 1955. This put the British under great pressure as if they resisted Malay independence much longer, there would be a violent military rebellion. This resulted in the British allowed a Malaysia union independence in 1957. Evidence 3 - Singapore - Britain wanted to retain it due to its naval base, changing international postition with USA as dominant power did not affect this as it was a bulwark against communism in South-East Asia. Similarly to Malaya, government struggled to combat communist nationalist insurgency thus Britain introduced legislative gov and expanded franchise in hope that this would encourage loyalty - this led to 1955 elections whereby new left-wing radicals took the positions - pressure persuaded Britain to offer full self-government to Singapore in 1957, fed of Malaya, expelled and became independent in 1965. ultimately, changed international position damaged Britain's willingness and capability to prevent decolonisation, WW2

Answer 9

Short Term Evidence 1 - – (following loss of major colonies in South East Asia to Japan, Britain wanted to reassert herself) led to heavy investment in Malayan tin and rubber industry, vital because it meant that Britain could reassert herself on the international market. Britain hoped this would earn large amounts of foreign currency and benefit contribute towards the Hard Currency pool. Evidence 2 – Exports of key commodities to Britain between 1946 and 1956 rose substantially from key parts of the Empire, Asia exports rose 4x, East Africa 4x, West Africa 6x. (analysis 1 – result of post war shortage of goods, attempt to reconstruct economy) Evidence 3 - Colonial Development Corp 1947, promoted investment in production of food and raw materials needed at home, aimed at using colonies to earn dollars for world market. Ie. (1948 Tanganyika Groundnut Scheme, £40 million) Long Term Evidence 1 - Counter Argue - By 1948, the Empire and Commonwealth accounted for around double the amount of imports and exports from Western Europe, 44% and 46% respectively. However, in the long term, by 1960 Western Europe was catching up to the amount of trade with the Commonwealth and by 1965 Western Europe accounted for 32.5% of British exports, 5% more than the Commonwealth. Analysis 1 - This is significant as Britain applied to the EEC in 1963 and 1967 but was rejected both times which indicates that they recognised the fading importance of trade and commerce with Empire and the Commonwealth. It should also be noted that by 1967 most of the independent ex-colonies of Empire had chosen to join the Commonwealth, but despite this trade with Western Europe was prospering even without the EEC. Evidence 2 – From 1967, sterling devaluation by 14% destroyed the sterling area which was in place since the 1930s and with it reduced trade with the Commonwealth followed. This weakened international faith in the value of sterling, it signaled Britain's declining economic power and its inability to maintain its position as a global superpower. Evidence 3 - Britain had only reluctantly invested in the industrial development of the Empire post 1947, which meant that the Empire mostly produced raw materials for Britain. By 1960s Britain was importing raw materials from Europe and elsewhere the world rather than its Empire – 70% of Britain’s imports and exports came from outside the Commonwealth by 1965.

Answer 10

Agree Evidence 1 - Dr Azikiwe in Nigeria – Nigeria was a culturally and ethnically divided country, Azikiwe worked with the nationalist rivals (of other parties and British) and the briitsh to create a viable and stable Nigerian state. He helped shape the British government’s relationship with its Empire as he made a deal with the Northern People’s Congress which established Nigeria’s first government with Azikiwe as President. This is significant as it pursuaded the British that it was possible for various groups to work successfully within a federal system, British rule wasn’t necessary to ensure stabilitiy. Hence independence granted in 1960. Evidence 2 – Sir Charles Arden-Clarke – Gold Coast - vital player in shaping British relationship with Empire. He played a great role in securing the release of nationalist leader Nkrumah from prison in 1951 and bringing him into government. Nkrumah understood the importance of developing a working relationship with the British to gain their confidence and support in order to establish a stable state. This was central in defusing rioting and strikes in West Africa. This facilitated the path to independence, and so much so that when it did arrive in 1957 Arden-Clarke was in such high regard that he was asked by the Ghanaian government to to become the country’s first honorary ‘Governor-General’. Clearly indicative of a greater relationship between Britain and Empire. Evidence 3 – Sir John Macpherson – Nigeria - In Nigeria 1950 John Macpherson opened up the higher levels of colonial administration for the Nigerians and he aimed at managing the transition smoothly to independence. In 1951 he organised a major conference to open discussions on a constitution that could accommodate the different regions and their competing political authorities. Counter Argue – This could be argued to have caused difficulties for the relationship between Britain and its Empire as it the ‘Macpherson Constitution’ failed to work effectively in the face of competing interests. Nevertheless – As Colonial Administrator, Macpherson certainly helped to ensure that, in spite of the wrangling between the regional factions, an independent Nigeria emerged in 1960, which did not collapse into separatism, anarchy, or war but instead a stable state that joined the Commonwealth in 1960 Therefore this administrator enabled a lasting relationship with the country. Disagree Evidence 1 - In Kenya under Administrator Evelyn Baring, Operation Jock Scott had been launched in 1952 which arrested suspected Mau Mau and took power back. Furthermore, in June 1957, Baring passed a secret memorandum to Alan Lennox Boyd – a British conservative politican. This confirmed the atrocity of the British behaviour during the Mau Mau uprising and mentioned how Baring himself asserted that inflicting "violent shock" was the only way of suppressing the Mau Mau rebellion.

Answer 11

Para 1 – Growth of Empire to protect interests Topic Sentence – New Empire created to protect the old, drove expansion Evidence 1 – 1896 Salisbury ordered a campaign for Sudan to be infiltrated by British troops to defeat Mahdists, by 1898 the Battle of Omdurman occurred which was ended with the defeat of the Mahdists. A Sudan condominium was established in 1899 which meant it came under British-Egytian administration. Analyse 1 – This action was done to protect the route of the Suez which Salisbury believed was at risk with a looming threat from the Mahdists. This was because the Suez allowed quick access to India which was key for trading, by 1914 India accounted 20% of Britain’s total exports totalling £150 million in value. The Suez cut the British route to India by 4000 miles. Therefore this act of expansion was necessary to protect Britain’s wealth. Furthermore, Britain owned around 45% of shares in Suez Canal which cost many millions hence this act protected it. Evidence 2 – because of issues of uitlanders who came in great numbers following 1886 witwatersland gold discovery and their rights, and great diamond depositories found in South Africa, and the interests of groups such as De Beers Consolidated Mines that was formed in 1888, for this purpose, boer war fought in 1899-1901. Orange Free State and Transvaal reannexed in 1902 after treaty of vereening. This was expansion that would allow the growth of British wealth in the region However, this did come at a great cost, the equivalent of £200 million, so whilst it could be argued that British wealth was benig drained here, their commitment of such an amount can be indicative of how heavily they rested on Empire. Para 2 – Maintenance Evidence 1- Uganda Railway ordered to be built in 1896 -Kenya part of East Africa Protectorate from 1895 onwards. Recorded to have cost c£5.3 million. Analysis 1 – Facilitated the export of tea and coffee, and connected to the fertile lands of Kenya which were used by the British settlers for crop growth. Evidence 2 – Colonial Loans Act of 1899 provided £10 million in loans to British colonies for infrastructure development projects such as railways, ports, and irrigation works. The act was designed to encourage economic development in the colonies and to promote British economic interests. Analysis 2- Indicative that Britain’s wealth did remain on the maintainance of the empire and extracting money out of it Counter – Argue – could be argued that not all colonies were economically beneficial. 1890- tropical Africa took 1.2% of British exports. However, the wealth did not come from corresponding trade, moreover it was receiving goods from Empire which could not be grown back home. Para 3 – Trade from outside of the Empire Evidence 1 - By 1894, Britain imported 64 million hundredweight of wheat, 30 million of which from USA but only 3 million from Canada, one of Britain’s key wheat exporters. Evidence 2 – Britain sold more to Belgium in the 1890s than the whole of Africa, and Latin America 10% of imports and exports of Britain. However, despite these facts preferential tariffs on goods imported from British colonies established in 1897. This was followed by the introduction of the first imperial preference scheme in 1911 under PM asquith, therefore, it can be understood that whilst trade outside the empire was significant, the Empire was still their greatest assert for trade.

Answer 12

Agree Evidence 1 - By the end of the war, 155,000 people were living in British concentration camps. 25% of this number had died in them during the war, mainly children. This caused activist EmilyHobson to visit the camps in 1900 which resulted in a report highlighting the atrocities of these conditions to Britain. This caused the British government to set up the Fawcett Commission to investigate her claims which corroborated her account of the shocking conditions. Analysis 2 –This weakened Britain as the revelations of the horrors of the British concentration camps proved a humiliation, Britain were meant to be civilised and the quintessential example of morality. This completely undermined their position, and presented them as sanctimonious Evidence 2 – In 1902, economist J.A Hobson argued that imperial expansion was driven by a search for new markets and opportunities for the rich capitalists of Britain to make profits through investment. Analyse 2 – This provoked debate and fed into socialist anti-imperialism, however, this does not prove that popular support was greatly declining. Hobson’s influence extended to a limited amount of people, the majority of the British public still supported imperialism and as mentioned before his voice was drowned by the cheering for imperialism in this period. Evidence 3 - 22,000 British soldiers losing their lives during the war. cost 300 million, cost important as funded by increased income tax in this period. Hence public discontent, perhaps indicative of reason for 1906 liberal landslide victory Disagree - Evidence 1 - Empire Day introduced in 1904 and was celebrated every year on May 24th onwards. It was primarily focused on celebrating the British Empire's military and economic might, and its position as a dominant world power, celebrating the achievements and unity of the British Empire to instill a sense of pride in British citizens around the world. Evidence 2 - British Empire continued to expand in the years after the Boer War. For example, in 1902, the British annexed the Ashanti Empire in West Africa, and in 1907, the British South Africa Company was granted a charter to administer what is now Zambia and Zimbabwe. These actions suggest that there were still those in Britain who believed in the benefits of empire and who were willing to support further expansion.

Answer 13

Missionaries – sparked interest in Africa Evidence 1 – David Livingstone - Livingstone travelled to Africa in 1858 to open up a ‘path for commerce and Christianity’ and received government funding. Across this exploration he sent 2000 letters back to Britain which thrilled public imagination. Analyse 2 – Therefore, he facilitated the activities of traders as he mapped his explorations, the influx of public imagination translated into an influx of support for imperial expansion hence Britain interest grew Evidence 2 – John Kirk – Important for extending interest in Africa as in 1868 he was Vice-Consul in the Sultanate of Zanzibar, under this role he ensured that Zanzibar operated as a client-state to Britain. This was an area of commercial importance as it had great clove and ivory exports, whilst also allowing strong access to the Indian Ocean thus India. Therefore, he gave Britain a toehold in the region which drove interest in the point to where they made it a protectorate in 1890. Traders - Evidence 1 – George Goldie – From 1877 bought up 30 trading posts in the Niger and acquired a monopoly, signed 450 trading agreements with local leaders. He also founded the Royal Niger Company in 1879 so then at the Berlin Conference the British gov could stake a strong claim to the Niger, ousting France in 1886. Analysis 1 - monopoly on trade allowed control the flow of goods and resources and encouraged the development of local markets. This helped to increase British trade with the region and stimulated the growth of the British economy. Furthermore,. With trading agreements with indigenous rulers + Royal Niger Company , it gave Britain greater military and political control of the region, hence why in 1886 Britain could assert such a strong claim over France. Evidence 2 – Cecil Rhodes - Traders also opened up Africa and gave British gov an economic incentive for expanding there. De Beers Mining Company 1889, by 1890 Rhodes owned 90% of the global diamond production. This caused British interest of retaining control, hence they chartered his British South Africa Company of 1899 which allowed him to take Rhodesia in 1895 which contained gold and coal. Strategic reasons / reactionary (rival powers) Evidence 1 – Bechuanaland Evidence 2 – Sudan 1898 Evidence 3 - Zanzibar 1890

Answer 14

Para 1 – India Point 1 – The British deliberately segregated the Indian Army based of believed racial superiority between natives. Evidence 1 – From 1890 to 1914 the British mainlry recruited mainly Sikhs, Punjabis, and Gurkhas, as they believed that they were inherently more martial and better suited for military service than others. This theory was used to justify the separation of the Indian Army into regiments based on religion and ethnicity. The British created separate Muslim regiments, Sikh regiments, and Hindu regiments. Analysis 1 - This division not only created a sense of rivalry and competition between different religious groups, but also by dividing the Indian Army along religious lines, the British ensured that any potential rebellion would be limited to soldiers from a single religious community. This damaged the relationship as it highlighted distrust and made racial generalisations. Counter Argue – Could argue that there were actions strengthened the relationship under Curzon, he set up a new Commerce and Industry Department and an Agricultural Department, aimed at economically supporting the lower class people but this does not outweight the damage he caused. Point 2 – Religiously insensitive partition of Bengal (linking to counter argument) Evidence 2 – 1905, Curzon decided to partition Bengal. This was split into a Muslim-majority province of East Bengal, and a Hindu-Majority of West Bengal. Analyse 2 – Continuation of religious insensitivity, he did not realise the damage this would cause. Hindus were infuriated as they perceived it as payback of criticisms of British rule. Their anger was derived from the fact that many of whom lost their land which they were renting out in East Bengal. Heightened racial tensions. British believed that because of their superior nature, they would be correct in making this act but it completely damaged their relationship Para 2 – Egypt/Sudan Counter Argue intro- The British did bring benefits, exports of cotton and sugar increased 3 fold and the population rose from 7 to 10 million by 1905, universities opened, teacher training, Point 1 – However, British actions in Sudan and Egypt were indicative of a sense of racial superiority which damaged their relationship. Evidence 1 – 1906 Denshawai Incident, British officers were hunting pigeons for sport when they accidentally shot a local woman, killing her. Scuffle ensued, British officer escaped but passed out, villager found him and tried to help but was murdered by British, several others executed. When they saw him next to the body. Analysis 2 – Indicative of British attitudes towards the natives, because of the Egyptian ‘inferiority’ and requirement for civilisation, they automatically assumed that he was the ‘savage’ who did it which is unreasonable. Furthermore, pigeons were cultivated as a source of food yet the British officers did not care for they did not respect the tradition, ignorance. Evidence 2 – 1883 Dufferin Report established a ‘veiled protectorate’ under a puppet ruler which was still active by 1914. This was passed by Evelyn Baring who basically ruled by controlling this puppet from these years. Analyse 2 – This was an example of a belief in racial superiority as Baring and the British in Egypt adopted a paternalistic attitude towards the Egyptian people, treating them as if they were children who needed guidance and protection. He believed that they were not capable of self-rule hence he would control it until they were capable. Links to Darwen’s Origins of Species in 1859 which was applied to human races, he did not consider them worthy. Para 3 – South Africa Evidence 1 – 1905 Jameson Raid, comprised of 500 who intended to overthrow the Transvaal government. The plan was that Johannesburg would revolt and seize the Boer armoury in Pretoria. Jameson and his force would dash across the border to Johannesburg to "restore order". Analysis 1 – This was a compelte underestimation of Boer capabilities, they thought they could simply use a little bit of force and tactics and sweep control of the Transvaal from beneath the Boer’s feet. Notions of British superiority misled them into thinking this would be possible. (Continuation of 1899 to 1901 Boer War, Prior to 1899 the war was anticipated to have lasted three to four months, involving 75,000 troops, and costing no more than £10 million. By 1902, it had lasted three years, involved 400,000 troops, and cost £230 million. Underestimated, had not learn their lesson)? Evidence 2 - Scorched earth during Boer War 1901 by Lord Kitchener, 30,000 Boer farmhouses, farms and crops destroyed. (completely ignorant, many indigenous people, particularly those living in rural areas, were displaced and left without food, shelter, or means of livelihood – British did not provide alternative for these people. However, it could be argued that in 1902 Peace of Vereeniging British gave £3,000,000 to help reconstruct. Nevertheless, doesn’t outweight human loss of life caused, can’t put a price on life. Evidence of positive rule - South African School of Mines, which was established in Kimberley in 1896 provided training for students in the mining industry. The school was intended to meet the growing demand for skilled workers. Rhodes University established in 1904, but funded by Rhodes who was a chief colonisor who championed racially superior views.

Answer 15

Point 1 - Opposition to the war and the self-confidence created by WWI threatened the future of the Empire. Evidence 1 – Ireland – because of the WW1, Irish volunteers chose to strike against the British. This resulted in the 1916 Easter Uprising which was quickly suppressed, but guerilla resistance ensued until 1921 when the British signed the Anglo-Irish treaty, creating a self-governing Free Irish State which was granted dominion status. Analyse 2 - This was the first real sign of Empire’s contraction as Britain’s oldest colony was lost. This wasn’t catastrophic for the British, however, as the Northern Irish opted to remain under British sovereignty. Evidence 2- Egypt – As the Ottoman Empire, which had previously controlled Egypt, was on the losing side of the war – the British could establish it as a Protectorate in 1914, expanding the Empire. However, turning point when WW1 impacts hit. Sir Henry McMahon in Egypt stated in 1917 that “the prices of food have soared to unprecedented heights” and thus the food situation in Egypt was critical. This caused starvation which led to nationalist Zaghlul to spearhead the Egyptian Revolution of 1919, as it came to be known, which marked a turning point in Egyptian history and is widely regarded as the beginning of the country’s struggle for independence from British colonial rule as the whole nation revolted. By 1922 Egypt was granted formal independence, following the growing nationalism they found it easier to grant independence than control the resistance. Counter Argue - That being said, the British lack of control was somewhat ostensible as Egypt continued to be a client state until 1954. Evidence 3 - Britain faced particularly difficult issues in Palestine, post WW1 great Jewish immigration which caused nationalism. British government could not control it, 1936 Briitsh sent 20,000 troops to deal with rioting, not sufficient, 37-39 British hanged 100 arabs, caused greater restrictions, so in 1939 jewish immigration restricted to 15,000 per year for five years, Disagree - Point 1 – Following the rise in Indian nationalism, Britain ensured control through ostensible pro-Indian concessions. Evidence 1 - In 1919, the British released the Government of India Act which established a diarchy giving Indians full control over self-government, education and the health service. While this appeared to be an act made to prepare Indians for independence, it was a carefully crafted example of divide and rule. The Indians would have little experience dealing with these affairs, therefore they would likely make errors and the Indian people would call for the British again. There is a continuation of the divide and rule in the 1935 Government of India Act. This extended the franchise from 7 – 35 million and broadened the amount of political parties. This would reduce the risk of a dominant party emerging to challenge the British therefore it was designed to maintain British rule for a long as possible. Therefore, the British were very competent in controlling nationalism to satisfy their aim of retaining control for as long as possible. Despite all nationalist movement, only until 1947 post war when Britain had to leave India Point 2 – the nationalist movement in Middle East Evidence 2 - Iraq – . It was agreed that in return for assistance against Ottomans in the war Iraq would be granted independence, undermined by the British Sykes-Picot agreement 1916, causing a rising sense of nationalism as evidenced by the 1920 Revolution and instability in Iraq. Britain instituted a more legitimate form of government with Faisal I in 1922 but still instability, the Kingdom of Iraq was granted independence in 1932. Analyse 2 – They understood that they had to neutralise the nationalism if they wanted to retain in control and this is exactly what this did, Faisal’s children were taught in British schools, Britain retained close economic and military ties with Britain, which retained air bases in the country. A veiled protectorate had been created, therefore they understood the nationalist issue very well.

Answer 16

Agree Sterlign area created 1931 – closer economic ties, colonies matched their currency to sterling after gold standard abandoned. 1913 british exports to dominions 17% - by 1929 it was 20% - 1926, the Empire Marketing Board was aimed at increasing public buying from Empire through promotion of its goods. - because of post WW1 imperial popularity began to fade to with the people hence its promotion Counter Argue – the dominions asserted that this had very little impact on their exports, so to the public trade with empire was not becoming increasingly important. Colonial Development and Welfare Act of 1940 – (following loss of major colonies in South East Asia to Japan, Britain wasnted to reassert herself) led to heavy investment in Malayan tin and rubber industry, vital because it meant that Britain could reassert herself on the international market. Britain hoped this would earn large amounts of foreign currency and benefit international trading position. (1948 Tanganyika Groundnut Scheme, £40 million) Disagree By 1913, imports from India and Burma were 7% of Britain’s imports, by 1925 this had dropped to 6%. Whilst this is a small decrease, it is indicative of the falling importance which can be understood by India having contributed £146 million to WW1, hence they experienced inflation and shortages meaning they were less beneficial as a trading partner. Counter argue - By 1948, the Empire and Commonwealth accounted for around double the amount of imports and exports from Western Europe, 44% and 46% respectively. Nevertheless, in the long term, by 1960 Western Europe was catching up to the amount of trade with the Commonwealth and by 1965 Western Europe accounted for 32.5% of British exports, 5% more than the Commonwealth. This is significant as Britain applied to the EEC in 1963 and 1967 but was rejected both times which indicates that they recognised the fading importance of trade and commerce with Empire and the Commonwealth. It should also be noted that by 1967 most of the independent ex-colonies of Empire had chosen to join the Commonwealth, but despite this trade with Western Europe was prospering even without the EEC. Sterling Devaluation 1967,lowered the value of the pound to dollar exchange rate by 14%, destroyed the Sterling Area by weakening international faith in the value of sterling

Answer 17

India 1918 Rowlett Act, act that gave British officials in India greater powers to arrest nationalists who spoke out against British rule. This was premeditated as they understood that the Indians expected their dominion status because of wartime contribution, this act naturally led to protest such as (amritsar) demonstrates power in short term to suppress nationalism 1919 Amritsar, 100s of demonstrators mowed down by artillery fire, this demonstrates that the British could rely on great repression to maintain control. However, this led to a greater sense of nationalism and peaceful protest and boycotts ensued. This culminated in the 1930 Salt March, whereby 100,000s of people boycotted the British salt which they had a monopoly over, but British beat and imprisoned 3000, but this inspired national boycotts, refusals to pay taxes, by manufactures etc. This can evidenced by manufactures dropped from £75 million in 1924 to £22 million in 1937 which was a reflection of the success of Indian boycotting of British goods. THEN, by 1945, the Labour government decided on granting India independence because of the realization that the economic benefits were being outstripped by the negatives which was a contributory factor. Another of the Labour government’s reasons was because of their distrust in the Indian Army. This was because of Chandra Bose in 1939 who aligned himself with Germany and Japan, and in 1943 he formed the Indian National Army Therefore, the nationalist movements in India were successful in achieving their aims for independence because they influenced the 1945 Labour Government’s reasoning to grant it. Africa However, turning point when WW1 impacts hit. Sir Henry McMahon in Egypt stated in 1917 that “the prices of food have soared to unprecedented heights” and thus the food situation in Egypt was critical. This caused starvation which led to nationalist Zaghlul to spearhead the Egyptian Revolution of 1919, as it came to be known, which marked a turning point in Egyptian history and is widely regarded as the beginning of the country’s struggle for independence from British colonial rule as the whole nation revolted. By 1922 Egypt was granted formal independence, following the growing nationalism they found it easier to grant independence than control the resistance. In 1919, the National Congress of West Africa was created, its initial demands for greater representation was denied, however some concessions were given by the British although the nationalists were outnumbered by appointed African chiefs on the legislative councils. This indicates that it was not the power of the nationalists, but instead the gift of the British Counter Argument – However, as the spread of education ensued, new, young and even more radical groups of nationalist leaders emerged from 1930s. For example, Nkrumha, Azikiwe, who were greatly influential in causing independence in the long-term post war. Their aim for steps towards independence was showing development as in 1945 a Pan African Congress convened in Manchester which called for African autonomy. Signficant as participants were able to develop a shared vision for African liberation, which greatly increased awareness for the cause at it had great media coverage.

Answer 18

Para 1 – Pursuit of wealth Point 1 – Goldie from 1877 bought up 30 trading posts in the Niger and acquired a monopoly, signed 450 trading agreements with local leaders. He also founded the Royal Niger Company in 1879 so then at the Berlin Conference the British gov could stake a strong claim to the Niger, ousting France in 1886 Analysis 1 - monopoly on trade allowed control the flow of goods and resources and encouraged the development of local markets. This helped to increase British trade with the region and stimulated the growth of the British economy. Furthermore,. With trading agreements with indigenous rulers + Royal Niger Company , it gave Britain greater military and political control of the region, hence why in 1886 Britain could assert such a strong claim over France. Evidence 2 - Cecil Rhodes – He had ambition of creating railway from Cape to Cairo, extending British influence along the way. He was blocked by German territory in 1890, hence his moral ambitions were pushed to the side.r Helped open up Africa and gave British gov an economic incentive for expanding there. De Beers Mining Company 1889, by 1890 Rhodes owned 90% of the global diamond production. This caused British interest of retaining control, hence they chartered his British South Africa Company of 1899 which allowed him to take Mashonaland in 1900 which contained gold and coal. Evidence 3 – Expansion into Egypt. In 1875 Britain bought 44% of shares in the Suez Canal and William Gladstone himself had some 37% of his investment portfolio sunk in the Suez Canal. Outside of investment, the Suez Canal also reduced the route to India by 4500 miles. Analysis 1 – These facts caused the British to establish a veiled protectorate in Egypt from 1882 onwards to protect the benefit the Suez Canal offered. The reduced route drastically expedited trade and commerce with India, a key trading nation with Britain. Para 2 – European Rivalry Evidence 1 – In 1882, Gladstone ordered the military occupation of Egypt which effectively made Egypt a ‘veiled protectorate’. Analysis 1 – This can be seen as part of a campaign to drive France out of the region, the British feared that French control of the Suez Canal would threaten Britain’s route to India as they were also large shareholders in the canal and equally wanted to control it, the canal was French engineered to they wanted their hands on it. The timing of this attack is significant as the French were changing their government at the same time, so this was the perfect opportunity for the British to seize full control for themselves. However, whilst being an example of European rivalry this is inherently an economic action. Britain’s involvement in Egypt was driven by an overwhelming need to preserve the Suez Canal as it facilitated trade and commerce with India, therefore, it was the pursuit of wealth which was key behind this action. Evidence 2 – following 1885-6 Berlin Conference, Britain agreed to led Germany have Tanganyika in return for Zanzibar. By 1890 Britain were in control of Zanzibar, this was in the time of territorial one-upmanship and regions were areas of status therefore they didn’t want to let Germany to get both. Also, risked giving Germans greater access to Indian Ocean, thus threatening India. However, ultimately economic as this had great ivory and clove exports, and this route to India was strong for Britain in preserving access to their greatest economic asset. Para 3 – Missionaries Evidence 1 - David Livingstone travelled in Africa, advocating greater influence for the sake of civilisation. However, in 1866 he returned for the purpose of opening up the path for Christianity and Commerce, and received government funding on this venture which is indicative of a hope to establish trade routes. He mapped these routes and this facilitated the economic ambitions as it made Africa easier to navigate. Evidence 2- John Kirk – returned ot Africa in 1858, infleunced by his spirit of adventure, interest in science, Christian duty and desire for a respectable position. !968 Vice Consul of Zanzibar, this helped cement British control in the region and this paved the way for British expansion into Uganda and Kenya. These territories were of great economic value, fertile land for cash crops etc so this an economic benefit.

Answer 19

Colonial Administrators Evidence 1 - Sir Andrew Cohen - Governor of Uganda 1952 -57, hopped from Cambridge to Civil Service to Colonial Office. Analysis 1 - Significant as: He knew decolonisation was inevitable, his focus was on how to manage it. Deeply concerned about African treatment and believed in negotiation with nationalists, he made contacts with them in Central and West Africa. Cohen Report 1947 - suggested route of gradual reform towards eventual independence. He proposed Central African Federation to prevent spread of apartheid (unsuccessful, dissolved in 1963). As Governor of Uganda, brought Africans into government and encouraged development of political parties. Helped lay groundwork for African independence, even if it came faster than he expected. (GOOD GUY) Evidence 2 - Sir John Macpherson - Governor of Nigeria 1948-55, served in Malaya, Caribbean and Palestine before Nigeria. Analysis 2 - Moved Nigeria to reform, opened higher levels of administration to Nigerians, organised 1951 Macpherson Conference with discussions on a constitution which could accommodate the differences in the country. Resulting Macpherson Constitution stimulated growth of political parties, greater regional autonomy granted in 1954. Helped ensure Nigeria didn't descend into Civil War, fundamental in helping Nigeria emerge as independent in 1960. (GOOD GUY) Evidence 3 - Charles Arden Clarke - Governor of Gold Coast 1949 - 1955, declined Cambridge scholarship to directly enter colonial service in 1920. Analysis 3 - Similarly to Macpherson, Clarke saw himself as a facilitator of self-rule and eventual independence. Largely significant in securing Nkhrumah's release from prison in 1951 and bringing him into government. This release was central in defusing a volatile situation of strikes and riots. Also capable of reining Nkhrumah in, delaying independence in the place of a 1956 general election which displayed his mandate in the face of growing Ashanti criticism. Independence granted in 1957 - held in such high regard by people that he was made an honorary Governor-General. (GOOD GUY) Nationalist Leaders Evidence 1 - Onn Bin Ja'afar - Malaya - boarding-school-educated in England, served as a government officer in Malaya. Driven by ideology and race, fiercely anti-communist but opposed British plans for a Malayan Union in 1946 as it threatened Ethnic Malay interests. Founded the United Malays National Organisation (UMNO). Analysis 1 - rallied Malayan people to oppose Malayan Union, forced British to back down in favour of the Malay Federation 1948 (restricted citizenship to ethnic Malays to placate nationalist demands). During the communist insurrection 'Malayan Emergency' he was able to win the trust of British officials to win promises of concessions. Thereafter, he sought inter-ethnic cooperation to win independence, persuading the Malay Chinese Association to unite with the United Malays National Organisation (UMNO). Successfully negotiated independence from the British alongside the Malay Chinese association in 1957. (SHORT TERM OPPOSED BRITISH, LONG TERM WORKED ALONGSIDE) Evidence 2 - Nkrumah - Gold Coast - Gold Coast educated, then went to study in USA. Involved in radical black activism and pan-Africanism, Marxist socialist who believed in redistribution of wealth. Advocated change from below, popular nationalism, despite this he recognised importance of working alongside the British for a stable society. Founded Convention Peoples' Party. Analysis 2 - helped to organise 5th Pan African Congress in Manchester 1945, stressed desire for independence post-war, brought greater light to decolonisation issue. Furthermore, by 1946 he secured enough electoral support to encourage his release from prison to become PM of the Gold Coast (1953-57) - under his Prime Ministership he helped move the Gold Coast to full independence as Ghana in 1957. Figurehead for African nationalism across the continent!! Evidence 3 - Dr Azikiwe - Nigeria, West Africa, attended English missionary schools in Nigeria, then went to university in the USA. Strong sense of African Nationalism, able to work with different nationalist groups and the British too. Helped to created the National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons (NCNC). Analyse 3 - Worked together with nationalist rivals and the British to overcome ethnic and religious tensions in order to create a viable and stable Nigerian state - secured a deal with the Northern People's Congress (NPC) to form the first Nigerian government in 1960, same year of Nigerian independence. Evidence 4 - Jomo Kenyatta - British East Africa (Kenya), stayed for 17 years in Britain. Wanted return of land to white settlers, believed in gradual moves towards independence over 3 years. After return from Britain, he became president of the radical Kenyan African Union . Analysis 4 - authored 'Facing Mount Kenya' (1938 - gave insight into Kenyan life'). Toured Kenya lecturing and campaigning 1948-51, imprisoned in 1953 as a scapegoat for the Mau Mau rebellion, released in 1961 and negotiated independence with the British by 1963. Became President of independent Kenya for 14 years. Evidence 5 - Apolo Milton Obote, Uganda (British East Africa), prevented by British authorities from pursuing university scholarship in USA. Radicalised during his time as a construction worker, became a socialist and firm believer in independence. Joined the Uganda National Congress in 1956, formed the Ugandan People's Congress when the UNC split in 1960. Analysis 5 - elected to Colonial Legislative Council in 1957, 1962, helped lead to Ugandan independence in 1962, appointed PM of Independent Uganda, ruled in a factional and dictatorial fashion, expelling Kenyans from leadership positions and dissolving the constitution and declaring himself President in 1966, abolished federal structure of Uganda in 1967. Evidence 6 - Nelson Mandela, South Africa, determined to achieve black equal rights and end apartheid, influenced by Marxism. Founded African National Congress' armed wing - Spear of the Nation (1961) in alliance with the SA Communist Party. Analysis 6 - Mandela significant as in 1952 he was chosen to head the 'Defiance Campaign' of civil disobedience against the apartheid government, secretly visited the rest of Africa and England to gain support for armed struggle against apartheid, sentenced to life imprisonment in 1964, widespread national support for his release and he became a great moral figure . Released in 1990, first elected post-apartheid President of South Africa in 1994. Evidence 7 - Ian Smith - Central Africa / Southern Rhodesia - believed in white minority rule, associated with the United Federal Party and Rhodesian Front (RF). Analysis 7 - became PM of Southern Rhodesia in 1964 on an anti-black rule programme, issued the universal declaration of independence in 1965, breaking away from the Commonwealth, set up and maintained apartheid in Rhodesia until 1979. Evidence 8 - Dr Hastings Banda - Nyasaland (Malawi), trained as a doctor in USA and Scotland. Opposed the creation of the Central African Federation. Part of Nyasaland African Congress. Analysis 8 - Campaigned against creation of CAF, imprisoned but later released in 1960 and invited to London for talks aimed at bringing independence. Became PM of Nyasaland in 1963, helped create Malawi, became increasingly repressive as President from 1966-94.

Answer 20

Disagree Evidence 1 – Dreamt of a Cape to Cairo Railway, to this end he sent settlers to establish Fort Salisbury in Matabeleland in 1890, opened up territories that from c1899 were known as the Rhodesias. Analysis 1 – This failed as his path was blocked by the German occupation of East Africa from 1891 and never completed. Evidence 2- Jameson Raid 1895, masterminded by Cecil Rhodes. Aimed to group up troops to march to Johannesburg and overthrow the Kruger regime, effectively putting control in British hands – thus aimed at expanding power. Analysis 2- Great failure, all the troops were rounded up, confirmed Kruger’s belief that the British were trying to undermine him – caused Rhodes to resign in 1896. Agree Evidence 1 – successful in economic expansion, under his British South Africa Company he annexed territories such as Mashonaland in 1890 which gave access to gold and diamonds, by 1890 he owned some 90% of global diamond production.

Answer 21

Colonial Administrators in India Evidence 1 – Edwin Montague, Secretary of State for India (1917-22), Jewish, public school. Believed in responsible self-government for Indians, also opposed 1917 Balfour Declaration (which declared Palestine as a national home for Jews) and Zionism on the grounds that Muslim Indians would be outraged by Jewish domination of Palestine. Analysis 1 – Significant, as his impact on Empire was the Montagu Declaration of 1917, promised ‘responsible self-government' to Indians after WW1. Then worked with Viceroy Lord Chelmsford (1916-21) to produce the recommendations that became the Government of India Act 1919 – offering limited self-government to Indians whilst British retained control of key powers. Evidence 2 – Sir Harry Haig, lifelong colonial administrator in India, member of Viceroy’s Executive Council in 1932. Public schoolboy. Similarly to Montagu, Haig represented the emerging generation of colonial adminstrators who, by the later inter-war period, reluctantly came to terms with the idea of Indians as partners in governing India – however, he was against independence. Analysis 2 – opposed the campaign for Indian independence, highly negative towards Gandhi, describing him as a menace. Evidence 3 – Lord Linlithgow, Viceroy of Indian Raj 1935-43, longest serving Viceroy in the history of the Raj. Served as officer during WW1, Etonian. Pragmatic man, believed in making small concessions to self-government in India as an attempt to weaken nationalist movements and help Indians see the wisdom of working with the British. Opposed independence, however. Analysis 3 – Impact was that he promoted enfranchisement of more Indians under the 1935 Government of India Act, declared war in 1939 on behalf of Indians without consultation (exacerbated nationalism), but promised greater rights in return for Indian loyalty (this was rejected by many Indians). Big opponent of Gandhi, arrested him and other leaders during 1942 Quit India campaign (Quit India - Lord Linlithgow called it the greatest rebellion since 1857 mutiny, campaign advocated immediate end to British rule in India). Indians thus blamed him for encouraging divisions between Muslims and Hindus during WW2 and for a lack of economic development in India. Evidence 4 – Baron William Hailey, civil servant in Raj, became Governor of Punjab (1924). Public school educated. Convinced that Indians needed to be engaged with but was against independence. Analysis 4 – Significant as he participated in the Round Table Conferences and helped create the 1935 Government of India Act. In 1938 he travelled over 20,000 miles for his African Survey, which influenced British policy in Africa. (All opposed to full Indian Independence) Colonial Administrators in Africa Evidence 1- Frederick Lugard – High Commissioner of Nigeria – 1900-06, Governor of Nigeria (1914-19). Fought in colonial campaigns in late 1800s. Believer in trusteeship (concept whereby colonies should be ruled in a way that looked after the interests of the indigenous peoples as well as white people, economic development should benefit indigenous etc) and dual mandate principles (belief that colonial power should 1) to its colonial peoples it should owe material and moral advancement leading to self-government, 2) outside world obligation to see that natural resources of colonies were developed and exploited) thus making imperialism mutually beneficial for Britain and the colonies. Analysis 1 – Significant as he published the book ‘The Dual Mandate’ in 1922 which became an authority on the rules and principles of methods of colonial rule in Africa during the inter-war period. Evidence 2 – Sir Donald Cameron – Governor of Tanganyika (1924-31), Governor of Nigeria (1931-35). Unusual, son of planter in Guiana, not public schooled. Career furthered by close relationship made with Lord Lugard. Administrator who tried to make trusteeship work, however, he believed that the path to self-rule must be very gradual, slow to delegate power and responsibility to natives. Analysis 2 – Promoted exports of ground nuts and palm oil in Nigeria, encouraged the building of harbours and railways in Tanganyika, supported entry of indigenous peoples into the civil service. Evidence 3 – Sir Phillip Mitchell – Administrator in Nyasaland, Tanganyika, Uganda, Kenya (in order). Public schooled. Aimed to fulfil trusteeship principle, that said, he was paternalistic towards Africans – believed they needed to become ‘civilised’ enough for eventual self-rule. Analysis 3 – Extended Makerere College in East Africa from a small technical college in 1922, to a prime centre for higher education affiliated with UCL by 1943. During Great Depression he set up a committee for developing infrastructure and raising finance in Africa. Evidence 4 – Andrew Cohen – Governor of Uganda (1952-57). Public school. Very sympathetic for plight of indigenous Africans, one of first to advocate decolonisation. Wanted educated African involvement in administrative process. Analysis 4 – Developed contacts with African nationalists, reorganised the legislative council in Uganda to include African representation. Included economic initiatives including Uganda Development Corporation (1952) to promote local industrial development. Indian Nationalists Evidence 1 – Gandhi, from 1909 he supported Home Rule. Following the 1919 Amritsar Massacre he shifted his home rule campaign over to a national campaign for full independence. This campaign was based off satyagraha principles, strikes, boycotts, etc to appeal to British moral conscience. He also advocated harmonious relations between Hindus and Muslims (fasted in protest against Hindu-Muslim conflict), hence why he opposed partition. Gandhi wanted India to remain predominantly agricultural and rural, rejected Western development. Became leader of Indian National Congress in 1918, shifted it towards peaceful protest and civil disobedience. Analysis 1 – Promoted boycotting of elections in 1920s, non-cooperation movement of 1920-22, Salt March of 1930, Civil Disobedience Movement of 1930-31, Quit India Movement 1942. Evidence 2 – Nehru – westernised (unlike Gandhi), educated in England at Harrow and Cambridge, joined Congress in 1919. Wanted an independent India to modernise and industrialise through economic planning, committed socialist. Analysis 2 – became Congress President in 1928, imprisoned during Salt March 1930. Re-elected in 1936, supported Britain in 1939 WW2, only reluctantly supported Quit India campaign 1942, imprisoned for it nevertheless until 1945. Most significant impact of Nehru was that he negotiated partition and the British withdrawal following Gandhi’s exit from politics in 1946. Had a ‘close’ relationship with Lord and Lady Mountbatten which aided the withdrawal. First PM of independent India. Evidence 3 – Muhammad Ali Jinnah, westernised, London educated. Led the Muslim League from 1913. Initially favoured Hindu-Muslim cooperation, but by 1940 he came to believe in a separate Muslim state. Analysis 3 – Left Congress in 1920 due to disagreements surrounding Gandhi’s non-violence ‘satyagraha’ policy. He represented the Muslim League at the Round Table Conferences of the early 1930s, reformed the League after 1937 to unite Muslims against Hindu-majority rule. Key impact is that he negotiated the creation of Pakistan in 1947, appointed as its first Governor General.

Answer 22

ML – mostly beneficial for Britain, not those living in Empire India Evidence 1 – helped provide capital and infrastructure – India received 20% of British foreign investment up to 1890, first railway in 1850, by 1880 there was 15,000 miles of rail track. Analysis 1- Benefited Indians as railway provided jobs, connected isolated areas of the country to more developed areas, enabled cotton, jute, tea, and opium, from the Indian hinterland to access the ports for export to Britain. (COUNTER ARGUE – However, these benefits do not outweigh the negatives. British investment was almost exclusively to further their own interests, not those of the Indians, capitalist plot. Railway expansion allowed ‘railway imperialism’, it expedited troop movement to ensure control of India, these resources were shipped back to Britain for cheap prices – exploited. - railway system was designed and operated to serve the needs of the British empire, rather than the needs of the Indian people. Evidence 2- British trade and commerce in India curbed development of India’s own industry, the indigenous cotton industry was deliberately suppressed to promote Britain’s textile industry, by 1890, 95% of the Indian textile market was dominated by British goods. Analysis 2 – Native Indians simply couldn’t compete with British prices, Britain could produce at a cheaper price in greater quantities. South Africa Evidence 1 - The discovery of diamonds in Kimberley 1867 and gold in Witwatersrand 1886 shifted economy to globally integrated industrial economy, British helped extract the natural resources in the region which the natives didn’t have technology to do – large supply of jobs for Bantu. analyse 1- However, mining company companies exploited these natives, limited black rights, 1890 Cecil Rhodes owned 90% of the diamond mines in Kimberley. taken from beneath them without giving share, restricted to low profit, menial tasks. Evidence 2- Bantu tribal organisation and communities destroyed, mining companies forced Bantu workers to live in segregated housing communities, furthermore, their economic development was curbed by the way British controlled and exploited resources. Analysis 2 – Removed chance of natives eventually propelling their own economies up using natural resources, they would now be constantly reliant on others for money to develop, couldn’t do it with their own resources. Rest of Africa Evidence 1 – East Africa given access to new technology that accelerated trade I.e clipper and steam ships. Furthermore Britain’s merchant fleet carried 50% of the world’s seaborne trade enabling colonies to export their goods to Britain in the later 19th century. Analysis 1 – Accelerated trade meant more revenue could be earnt by colonies. However (Counter), they were given bad deals on trade – exploited. East African colonies produced sugar, coffee, cocoa, groundnuts, tropical goods. The production was small scale and indigenous farmers were willing to sell at a very low price if it meant the British would buy it, benefited British more than indigenous. From Tropical Africa only imported 1.2% of British exports by 1890. So they sold at very low prices, and got very little back in return. Evidence 2 – West Africa – Royal Niger Company 1886 signed 450 treaties with local tribes to trade British goods for ivory, gold, however this was much more beneficial for British. British had established these companies to forcibly open trade, they discouraged free competition and exploited natives and native’s detriment.

Answer 23

Para 1 – Important Evidence 1 – Up until 1914, 40% of British investment was in Empire. Colonial Loans Act 1900, promoted infrastructure projects such as rail into African interiors. Evidence 2 – India imported 20% of Britain’s total exports, worth £150 million by 1914. Evidence 3 – Joe Chamberlain - 1903 Tariff Reforms - imperial preference - counter Counter – However, during this time period trade with the rest of the world was greater, Britain exported twice as much to countries outside of Empire. Para 2 – Not important Point 1 – Britain living on old investment, eg Suez, rather than an actual good trading situation. Evidence 1 – Britain's trade was actually growing in the non-imperial world, in 1894 Britain imported 64 million hundredweight of wheat. Only 3.6 million of which was from Canada (Empire), whilst 30 million came from the USA. Similarly, only 10% of foodstuff imports came from Empire. Evidence 2 – In 1860, British exports as a total of Indian imports totaled 85%, by 1914 this number had dropped down to 66%. Analysis 2 – This is because India was becoming more self-sufficient, working with other countries. Exacerbated by 1905 Bengal Partition, led to swadeshi movement, nationwide boycott – led to short-term drop in use and import of British goods. Evidence 3 – In 1890s, Britain sold more to Belgium than whole of Africa – Tropical Africa imported only 1.2% of British exports by 1900. Not much corresponding trade.