Equine Repro Flashcards
1
Q
What areas of the equine repro tract harbor bacteria?
A
Clitoral fossa
Clitoral sinuses
2
Q
What is the most sensitive organ to hormonal stimulation in the horse?
A
Cervix
3
Q
Describe the cervix under the influence of progesterone
A
Closed
Dry
Homogenous appearance on ultrasound
4
Q
Describe the cervix under the influence of estrogen
A
Low relaxed moist hypertrophic and edematous "cartwheel" shaped n ultrasound
5
Q
Describe the cervix during midestrus
A
Moist and on the floor of the vagina
Dorsal frenulum is present
6
Q
What is different about the cervix of the equine compared to other species?
A
always dilatable due to the absence of fibrous rings
7
Q
Describe the Uterus in the mare compared to the cow
A
Y- or T-shaped ovaries
more lateral than cow
8
Q
Why are the endometrial folds critical in the equine repro tract?
A
reproductive management
defense
9
Q
Where do you find unfertilized ova in the equine?
A
Oviduct
10
Q
When do fertilized ova descend into the uterus?
A
day 5.5
11
Q
What causes the Uterotubule junction to open?
A
PGE
12
Q
What is the function of the oviduct in the equine?
A
Sperm storage
Fertilization site
embryo transport
13
Q
What is the hormone for maternal recognition in equine?
A
Prostaglandin E2
14
Q
When would you flush the equine for embryo transfer?
A
day 7-8
15
Q
What is the size of a mature follicle?
A
40+ mm
16
Q
Where do follicles ovulate in the ovary?
A
ovulation fossa
17
Q
Why does the follicle change shape when it ovulates?
A
as the follicle migrates to the ovulation fossa it changes shape from spherical to oblong
18
Q
How many glands are in each side of the mare’s udder?
A
2 glands
19
Q
What is the only pathology of the mare’s udder?
A
Mastitis
20
Q
What gland is responsible for the mare’s cyclic breeding?
A
Pineal gland
21
Q
What type of breeders are equine?
A
Long day breeders
22
Q
Describe how melatonine affects GnRH
A
High levels of Melatonin in dark days inhibit production of GnRH
Low levels of Melatonin produce GnRH
23
Q
What happens to Mares during Winter anestrous?
A
About 30% show heat but only half ovulate
24
Q
What happens during the Spring Transition in mares?
A
Begin to display heat but may not ovulate
25
Describe the uterus in anestrous
no ovarian activity
| uterus is flaccid with no tone
26
When should you start putting the mare under lights to stimulate estrous?
60 days before
27
How many hours of light do you need to expose the mare to to affect her seasonality?
16 hours of daylight
28
Describe the Transitional period in mares
Mares have multiple variable size follicles
Uterus has estrual tone, evidence of uterine edema
Displays signs of estrus for variable length of time
Ends with the first ovulation of the year
29
How can you reduce the length of the Transitional period?
```
Progesterone
Progestagens
Dopamine antagonists
Domperidone
Sulpiride
```
30
What would cause a mare to mount another mare?
testosterone secreting pathology
31
What can you use to induce ovulation?
Human chorionic gonadotropin
Deslorelin injectable
Recombinant LH
32
What is the problem with hCG?
High antigenicity due to the large molecule size
33
What is the advantage of using Deslorelin (GnRH)?
Induces more effectively and over a shorter period of time
34
When does the CL reach maximum maturity level?
day 4-5
35
What are possible causes of failure to respond to ovulatory inducing agents?
"immature follicles" with not enough LH receptors
Mares are not in estrus even though a large follicle is present
Anovulatory follicles
36
HAF
Hemorrhagic Anovulatory Follicles
37
Hemorrhagic Anovulatory Follicles (HAF)
Fails to ovulate in response to ovulatory inducing agents
38
What are the options for luteolysis and estrus induction?
PGF 2 alpha
| Cloprostenol
39
What is the estrus interval average after luteolysis?
3-5 days
40
What is the ovulation interval after luteolysis?
8-10 days
41
Where is PGF 2 alpha metabolized?
in the lungs
42
What are the side effects of PGF 2 alpha?
Diarrhea
Abdominal cramps
sweating
43
When is the CL responsive to prostaglandin?
5 days
44
What are the wrong used of Prostaglandin?
Ovulation induction
Uterine evacuation post-ovulation
Induction of parturition
45
What determines the interval between prostaglandin injection and ovulation?
Size of the follicle at the time of treatment
46
What are the factors that maximize your chances of a pregnant mare?
Good management
Clean Mare
Good Timing
Good semen
47
How many days from the time of ovulation to the next time the mare shows heat?
15 days
48
How often can a stallion breed per day?
2-4 times
49
What is the limiting factor for number o times a stallion breeds per day?
Libido
50
Describe Endometrial Edema Grade 4
```
Thicker
Hypo-echoic center
Hyper-echoic wall
More prominent at the uterine body but still maintains a nice uterine architecture
"cart wheel"
```
51
Describe Endometrial Edema Grade 5
| Hyper-edema
Very thick endometrial folds loss of "normal" US architecture
Increased surface area, often free fluid not observed
Follicles variable
52
When should you breed pre-ovulation with natural breeding in the mare?
72-48 hours pre ovulation
53
When should you breed pre-ovulation with Fresh semen in the mare?
less than 48 hours pre ovulation
54
When should you breed pre-ovulation with fresh cooled semen in the mare?
24-36 hours pre ovulation
55
When should you breed pre-ovulation with frozen semen in the mare?
less than 12 hours pre ovulation
56
Why do we not want to inseminate post ovulation in the mare?
DNA damage is very quick once the egg is released
57
Definition of proper artificial insemination
Deposition of good quality semen into the uterus of a clean mare at the right time
58
What are the advantages of AI in the mare?
Maximize efficiency of stallion usage
Increase genetic pool due to increased availability of stallions
More regular evaluation of stallion semen
Reduce risk of sexually transmittable diseases
Increases safety of animals and handlers
59
What is the main factor contributing to sperm migration to the oviduct of the mare?
Uterine contractility
60
Where are sperm deposited in the mare?
Uterus
61
What is responsible for eliminating excess fluid from the uterus in the mare?
Myometrial contractions
62
What is the order of fertility in mares?
1. Young Maiden Mare
2. Early Foaling Mares
3. Barren Mares
4. Old Maiden Mares
63
What type of insemination is used in mares to reduce inflammation and increase pregnancy rates with difficult stallions?
Deep Horn Insemination
64
What is the order of best treatment options for mares that do not become pregnant when bred with good semen under excellent management conditions?
1. Embryo transfer
2. Oocyte transfer
3. Intracytoplasmic sperm injection
65
What are the indications for embryo transfer in mares?
Young mares in competition
Mares with severe uterine problems
More than one foal a year
Biopsy for desired outcome (HERDA, HYPP, GEBD, EPSM, Gender)
66
Indications for Cytoplasmic Sperm injection
Old mares where it is not possible to retrieve an embryo
Oviductal disease
Mares that have died
Use of stallions with very limited amount of semen available
67
Indications for Oocyte transfer
Old mares where it is not possible to retrieve an embryo
Oviductal disease
Mares with unexplained infertility
68
Describe proper vulvar conformation
vulva is 1/3 above and 2/3 below the pelvic bone
69
What is the most reliable way to examine the patency of the cervix?
digital examination during diestrus
70
What happens in maiden mares cervixes?
cervix will start to loose its functional integrity
| The muscle layer undergoes a marked atrophy and the cervix becomes a collagenous tube that does not dilate
71
What are the different pathology of the cervix in the mare?
Fails to relax and open during estrus
Fails to close during diestrus
Adhesions
72
What is the most common bacteria causing endometritis in mares?
Streptococcus zooepidemicus
| Escherichia coli
73
When would you perform a uterine biopsy?
```
Repeated embyronic death
Repeated abortions
Fail to respond to treatment
Unable to diagnose uterine pathology with routine swab
Prognosis of pregnancy
```
74
Grade III Uterine Biopsy
Severe fibrosis
Nest of glands isolated throughout the uterus
Severe damage to the uterus
75
What happens to edema as the mare reaches ovulation?
Edema starts to decrease toward ovulation
76
When do you see the most significant decrease in edema before ovulation in the mare?
18-36 hours pre ovulation
77
If you see high uterine edema what does that signal in the mare?
Low fertility
78
What are the causes of Failure to cycle in the mare?
```
Winter anestrous
Transitional mare
Pregnancy
Endocrine
Uterine Pathology
```
79
What causes Prolonged diestrus/pseudopregnancy in the mare?
CL lifespan prolonged beyond day 15
Diestral ovulations
Early embryonic death after maternal recognition of pregnancy 15-35 days
Failure of PGF 2 alpha release due to uterine abnormality: pyometra
80
What is the cause of Failure to cycle?
```
Aged mares stop cycling
Limited number of oocytes
Low body condition score
negative energy balance
Anterior Pituitary dysfunction
Adrenal problem
Tumors
```
81
What is the most common Gondal dysgenesis in the mare?
Turner's Syndrome: small ovaries and infantile tract
82
What is the most common hermaphrodite?
Male Hermaphrodite
83
What are the tumors of the mare repro tract?
```
Teratoma
Dysgerminoma
Cystadenoma
Granulosa cell tumor
Granulosa-thecal cell tumor
```
84
What is the most common tumor of the equine repro tract?
Granulosa-Thecal Cell tumor
85
Clinical signs of Granulosa-Thecal cell tumors
Aggressive
Nymphomania
stallion-like
Anestrus
86
What is the treatment of Granulosa-Thecal cell tumors?
Remove ovary
87
How do you diagnose Granulosa-Thecal cell tumor in mares?
Measure Inhibin
88
What are the barriers to infection?
Vulva
vestibulo-vaginal fold
Cervix
89
Types of Endometritis in the mare
```
Breeding induced
Persistent breeding induced
Acute Bacterial
Chronic Bacterial
Chronic Degenerative
```
90
What causes Persistent Breeding Induced Endometritis in the mare?
Mares unable to evacuate residual fluid from the uterus due to poor uterine contractility or a poorly relaxed cervix are categorized as susceptible to uterine infections
91
What are the effects of uterine pathology on ovarian function?
Anestrus
Short luteal phases
Prolonged luteal phases
92
What type of bacteria causes short luteal phases?
Gram negative bacteria
93
What does Gram positive bacteria cause in the mare?
Inflammation affecting the uterine lining causing PGF 2 alpha to not be released
94
When should we culture the biopsy in the mare?
Mares that continue to accumulate fluid
Mares that ovulate with hyper-edema
Mares that show premature presence of uterine edema
95
Therapy for Persistent Mating induced Endometritis
Reduce the degree of inflammation
| Reduce the time the fluid is accumulated
96
What are the predisposing factors of Chronic bacterial or fungal endometritis?
Poor perineal conformation
Cervical incompetence
Poor uterine contractility
97
What is the therapy for Biofilms in mares?
```
Acetylcisteine
DMSO
EDTA
Gentocin
Kerosene
```
98
Cause of Early embryonic death
```
Embryonic abnormalities
Insufficient maternal P4
Failed MRP
stress
disease
Inadequate endometrium
Endometritis
```
99
Signs of Embryonic Death
Small size for gestational age
Irregular vesicle prior to day 20
Absence of a heart beat at day 28-30
Free fluid or disseminated edema in a pregnant mare
100
Abortion
loss of a pregnancy once the fetal stage has started
| 45+ days - birth
101
What is the most common cause of non-infectious abortion?
Twinning
102
What are the three routes of infection in the mare?
Transcervical
Hematogenous
Previous intrauterine infection
103
What is the most common cause of infectious infertility in the mare?
Herpes Virus
104
What is the most common cause of endometritis in the mare?
Streptococcus Zooepidemicus
105
What is the signalment for Equine Herpes Virus 1?
Mares 5,7,9 months of gestation
106
What are the lesions of EHV 1?
Hydrothorax
pulmonary edema
hepatic necrotic foci
eosinophilic intranuclear inclusion bodies in the foci in of the liver
107
EHV III
```
Coital exanthema
Transmitted by the stallion
Self-limiting
Secondary bacterial infection
Remove from service until heal
```
108
Clinical signs of EVA
```
Fever
depression
Rhinitis
conjunctivitis
Ventral edema
Abortion 3-10 months
```
109
What is the only true venereal sexually transmissible disease in mares?
Contagious Equine Metritis
110
How do you diagnose Taylorella equigenitalis?
Culture penis, urethra, preejaculatory fluid and semen
111
When is the earliest a pregnancy can be diagnosed in the mare?
10- 16 days post ovulation
112
What are you checking for on days 28-32 on ultrasound in the mare?
Normal embryonic development
Presence of a heartbeat
Checking for one embryo
113
Vesicular morphology
Embyronic disk is always on the ventral side of the vesicle
114
What is responsible for maternal recognition in the mare?
Estrogen production + contact of the embryo = blockage of Prostaglandin production
115
When does the embryo fixate in the mare?
day 16
116
Describe the embryo on day 28-32
the embryo is in the middle of the vesicle and half is yolk sac and half is amniotic fluid
117
Describe the embryo at day 35-37
the embryo reaches the top of the vesicle and then becomes too heavy and the embryo falls to the ventral part of the vesicle
118
At what day is the embryo fully formed?
After day 45
119
When can you identify the genital tubercle?
day 55-65
120
What maintains the pregnancy until day 160?
CL
121
What occurs on day 100-120?
Gonads develop and produce estrone sulfate
122
What maintains the pregnancy after day 160?
progestagins from the fetal placental unit
123
What can cause twinning?
Ovulatory inducing agents
124
What is the method for twin reduction?
```
Spontaneous reduction
Manual reduction
Transvaginal Aspiration
Manual trauma with membrane rupture
Craneo-cervical dislocation
Intracardiac injection of KCl
Surgery
Diet
```
125
Mummification
death in the absence of bacterial infection
126
Maceration
dead fetus with bacterial contamination
127
What is the treatment for Mummification or Maceration?
Removal of fetus
| Uterine lavage and antibiotics
128
How deep should the amniotic and allantoic fluids be?
7.9 +/- 3.5cm and 13.4 +/- 4.4cm
129
What are the most reliable parameters to indicate fetal well-being?
FHR/FHR reactivity
130
Signs of Placentitis
Purulent vulval discharge
Udder development
Premature lactation
Cervical dilation
131
What is the therapy for Ascending Placentitis?
Antibiotic that crosses the placenta
Anti-inflammatories
Uterine relaxants
+/- Uterine Blood flow
132
What is common in older multiparous mares?
Vaginal varicose veins
133
What is a normal incidental finding in pregnant mares?
Allantoic vesicles
134
What is the most common Hydropic condition in mares?
Hydro-allantois
135
How do you treat Colic due to pregnancy in mares?
Altrenogest supplementation
Flunixin Meglumine
Antibiotics
136
When does Uterine torsion occur?
Late gestation
137
What is the treatment for Uterine Torsion?
Rolling
Flank approach
Ventral midline if foal is dead
138
How do you treat ventral abdominal edema?
diuretics and exercise
139
Characteristics of Pre-pubic tendon rupture of the mare
Cranial displacement of the udder
Obvious abdominal drop
Sero-sanguinous to bloody mammary secretion
140
Prolonged gestation
greater than 360-380 days
141
What are the causes of prolonged gestation?
Relationship to photoperiod
10 days longer in early spring than mid summer
Arrest of embryonic/fetal development may occur in early pregnancy lasting 3-5 weeks
142
What does Fescue cause?
Decreased milk production due to low prolactin
Prolonged gestation or even abortion
Weak or dead foals
Dystocia
143
How do you treat Fescue toxicosis?
Remove source 30-45 days before parturition
| Domperidone
144
When should a pregnant mare be vaccinated?
10 months of gestation with all annuals and antibodies for colostrum
145
How should you prepare the mare for foaling?
Vaccination
Deworm
Nutrition
Exercise
146
What is the normal mare gestation length?
320-365 days
147
When would you open the Caslick before parturition?
1 weeks
148
In how many weeks is parturition due in the mare with udder enlargement?
2-4 weeks
149
In how many days is parturition due in the mare with clear watery secretions from the udder?
4-5 days
150
How many days is parturition due in the mare with Thick, sticky clear or yellowish exudate from the udder?
24-48 hours
151
How many days is parturition due in the mare with Thick, waxy exudate on the udder?
24-48 hours
152
Describe the first stage of labor in the mare
```
Cervix relaxes
uterine contractions
Fetal rotation
Restless mare
sweating
```
153
Describe the second stage of labor in the mare
```
Uterine contractions intensify
Sweating
fetus enters the birth canal
Chorio-allantoic membrane ruptures
Abdominal contractions
Amnion appears at vulva
```
154
What are the requirements for induction in the mare?
greater than 330 days of gestation
Cervix is open atleast 3 fingers
Colostrum or milk in udder
155
Why would you induce at 315 days?
compromised mare
156
What is the effect of using Prostaglandin for parturition induction?
Explosive birth with torn cervix
| Foals broken ribs and ruptured bladder
157
What is the method of choice for inducing parturition in the mare?
Oxytocin
158
What is the method of choice for inducing parturition in a compromised mare?
Steroids
159
Describe stage three of labor in the mare
Expulsion of the placenta or fetal membranes
| Normal delivery within 3 hours
160
How many layers of the Placenta in the mare?
6 layers
161
What type of placenta do mares have?
Epitheliochorial
Diffuse
Micro-cotyledonary
162
Which horn is often the horn that becomes torn in the mare?
The non pregnant horn
163
Dystocia
The inability of the mare to culminate the second stage of labor
164
When do you suspect Dystocia?
if the mare is actively straining, chorioallantois breaks and no visible progress in 10-15 minutes
165
Red Bag
Premature Placental Separation
166
What are the problems associated with Red Bag deliveries?
Prolonged labor
Meconium release
Foal Anoxia/Asphixia
Dummy foal
167
How do you relieve Dystocia in the mare?
```
Traction
Fetotomy
C-section
Reposition
Repulsion and reposition
Flotation
```
168
What are the options for C-section in the mare?
Flank
| Ventral
169
How do you minimize contractions while fixing the dystocia?
Injectable clenbuterol
| Sedation with xylazine and butorphanol
170
What are the risk factors for Septic Metritis?
Cleanliness of foaling area
Retained placenta
Ascending placentitis
Obstetric manipulations
171
Clinical signs of Septic Metritis
```
Fever
depression
tachycardia
injected mucous membranes
Positive digital pulses
Distended uterus with large amounts of fluid
```
172
What is Septic Metritis associated with in the mare?
E. coli
| Klebsiella pneumoniae
173
Therapy for Septic Metritis
Systemic antibiotics
NSAIDs
Prevention of endotoxemia-laminitis complex
Uterine Lavage
174
Therapy for Hemorrahge Post-Partum clinical signs
```
Xylazine and Butorphanol
Replenish fludis
Aminocaproic acid
Yunnan baiyao
IV therapy with Formalin
```
175
Uterine tears/rupture clinical signs
Depression
Anorexia
colic
fever
176
Therapy for Uterine tears/rupture
```
Surgical
Oxytocin
Antibiotics
NSAIDs
Fluid therapy
abdominal lavage
```
177
What is contraindicated in Uterine tears/rupture therapy?
Uterine lavage
178
Risk factors of Uterine Prolapse
Dystocia
Retained placenta
Persistent straining
179
Therapy for Uterine Prolapse
Wash and assess uterus for tears
Start replacing the uterus from the most distal place
Uterine lavage
Supportive therapy
180
Rectal prolapse
forceful straining during dystocia resulting in rectal prolapse could result in avascular rectal necrosis
181
Recto vaginal fistula
Foal's perforates the roof of the vagina and wall of rectum
182
Treatment for Recto Vaginal fistula
Heal by second intention
| Repair surgically if feces are still found in the vagina or vestibule
183
Third degree perineal lacerations
tears of the ventral rectal wall and dorsal vaginal wall forming a cloaca
184
How do you treat bladder atony?
Buthanecol
185
Risk factors of Retained Fetal Membranes
```
Abortion
Induction of parturition
C-section
Dystocia
Twin pregnancy
Placentitis
Pain
Hydropic conditions
Hypocalcemia
Low Vit. E and Se
```
186
Treatment for Retained Fetal Membranes
```
Oxytocin
IV calcium Borogluconate
Burns technique
Manual removal
Antibiotics: TMS in the uterus
```
187
Burns Technique
infusion of large volume of fluid in the unruptured chorio-allantoic space to stimulate endogenous oxytocin release
188
When is the foal heat?
day 6 after parturition
| ovulate on day 10
189
When do you have uterine involution in the mare?
Day 14
190
What method of collection would you use in a stallion with neurologic problems or lameness?
Ground collection
191
What drugs are used for chemical ejaculation in the stallion?
Norepinephrine
Imipramine
Xylazine
192
Describe the stallion semen characteristics
```
50mL
120x10^6 sperm concentration
5-15x10^9 total sperm
Greater than 60% sperm motility
Greater than 60% normal morphology
```
193
What is a common perm abnormality in the stallion?
Abaxial aberration of the tail
194
What is Spermatogenic epithelium in the semen of the stallion a sign of?
Testicular degeneration
195
What does low seminal plasma ALP mean?
there is a blockage in the epididymis
196
What does a high seminal plasma ALP mean?
no sperm present in the testes
197
How much sperm is present in fresh semen for AI?
500 milllion
198
How much sperm is present in cooled semen for AI?
1 billion
199
How much sperm is present in frozen semen for AI?
Load 800 million to 1 billion
| Minimum of 240 million after thawing
200
Pyospermia
pus in the semen
201
Hemospermia
blood in the semen
202
Urospermia
Urine in the semen
203
If you find pyospermia in the presperm fraction where is it coming from?
bulbourethral glands, urethra
204
If you find pyospermia in the sperm rich fraction where is it coming from?
Epididymis
| ampullae
205
If you find pyospermia in the sperm poor fraction where is it coming from?
Prostate
| vesicular glands
206
If you find pyospermia in the gel fraction where is it coming from?
Vesicular glands
207
What is the treatment for hemospermia?
Sexual rest
| depends on the source of the blood
208
What is a source of hematuria in geldings?
Tear in the mucosa of the urethra
209
What is the treatment for a tear in the mucosa of the urethra in geldings?
Cauterize
| Sexual rest
210
Causes of Urospermia in the stallion
```
Cauda equina neuritis
EHV-1
HPP
Cystitis or urolithiasis
Fractures
osteomyelitis
neoplasia
idiopathic
```
211
Treatment for urospermia in stallions
Completely empty bladder before ejaculation
Furosemide to dilute any urine
Bladder lavage
Dilute raw semen immediately
Alpha-adrenergics: imipramine and Phenylpropanolamine
212
Retrograde ejaculation in the stallion
Semen in the bladder
213
When is normal testicular descent in the stallion?
last 30 days in utero or first 10 days after birth
214
In what breed might you find Cryptorchidism?
QH
Percheron
ASH
ponies
215
How do you diagnose Crytorchidism?
```
Rectal exam
US
Resting testosterone concentration
hCG/GnRH stimulation
Basal estrone sulfate
Anti-mullerian hormone
```
216
What is the cause of testicular trauma in stallions?
Kick by mare
217
What is the treatment for testicular trauma in the stallion?
```
NSAIDs
Ice
hydrotherapy
sling
hand walking
```
218
What is the treatment for testicular rupture?
remove the ruptured teste to save the normal teste from damage
219
What is the treatment for Infectious Orchitis?
Antimicrobial therapy supportive therapy
| Unilateral orchiectomy
220
Why should you perform a unilateral orchiectomy on infectious orchitis in the stallion?
To save the normal teste from heat and swelling
221
What is the most common neoplasia in the stallion?
Teratoma
222
What neoplasia is malignant in older stallions?
Seminoma
223
What solution should you preserve testicular neoplasia in for histopathology in the stallion?
Bouin's solution
224
Oligozoospermia
small amount (low concentration) of sperm
225
Asthenozoospermia
sperm do not move (reduce sperm motility)
226
Teratospermia
abnormal sperm morphology
227
Azoospermia
no sperm int he ejaculate
228
What is the treatment for testicular degeneration?
no treatment
229
What does testicular degeneration cause?
Oligozoospermia
Asthenozoospermia
teratospermia
azoospermia
230
How do you diagnose testicular degeneration?
biopsy
231
What cause of testicular degeneration can the testes recover from in the stallion?
prolonged elevated temperature
232
Hydrocele (vaginocele)
serous fluid between visceral and parietal layers of vaginal tunic
233
What is the cause of Hydrocele in the stallion?
Idiopathic
| Extension from ascites
234
What is the treatment for Hydrocele in the stallion?
Spontaneous resolution
move to cooler environment
Exercise
235
Varicocele
Dilation of vessels of pampiniform plexus
236
What is the cause of Varicocele in stallions?
Incompetent testicular vein
237
What is the treatment for severe/acute testicular torsion in the stallion?
Surgical removal
238
What are the complications of detorsing a long term spermatic cord torsion
reprofusion injury and breach of blood teste barrier of the good teste
239
What is the treatment for penile hematoma?
Minimize hemorrhage
Tight bandage
prevent sexual arousal
240
Paraphimosis
inability to retract penis
241
Treatment of paraphimosis in stallions
Resolve cause
support penis
reduce swelling
return prepuce
242
Complications of paraphimosis in stallions
Phallectomy
243
What causes Paraphimosis in stallions?
Trauma
systemic disease
neurological
phenothiazine tranquilizers
244
Priapism
Persistent erection without sexual arousal
245
What cause priapism in stallions?
Phenothiazine tranquilizers
| neurological
246
Treatment of priapism in stallions?
Anticholinergic
Beta 2 adrenergic drugs
Phenylephrine
Surgical irrigation
247
What is the most common penile neoplasia in stallions?
Squamous cell carcinoma
248
High flow priapism
Arterial supply affected
249
Low flow priapism
Venous drainage affected
