Equine Health Management Y1 Flashcards

Question

Some Common Equine Ailments

Answer 1

Some Common Equine Ailments .Colic .Choke .Equine Influenza .Strangles .Sarcoids .Mud fever & Rain scald .Laminitis From Week 1 theory

Answer 2

Important info .Remember that all horses will respond differently and have different baseline values .Some horses are naturally calm, others are very active and excitable .Some are aggressive eaters, some are slow and picky .Bear in mind if there is a lot going on at the yard, moving home, bringing in a new neighbour .Mares in season, stallions during the covering season .Pregnant mares, foaling, weaning .Within the first 4 days of life, the normal foal temperature varies between 99 to 102°F. The resting heart rate is between 70 to 100 beats per minute or higher if excited or active. Resting respiration rate in the first weeks is between 20 to 40 breaths per minute From Week 1 theory

Answer 3

Signs of health  Know your horse  Know ‘normal’ parameters for the individual  Be aware of his behaviour From Week 1 theory

Answer 4

Appearance  Should have bright eyes, look alert and generally content  Colour in the eyes, nose, other membranous areas o Pink is good o Deep red / inflammation – colic? o White – debility – off colour? o Yellow gums – liver disorder? o Purple – really bad – circulatory problem?  Eyes & nose o Discharge can indicate fever, low grade virus – treatment? o Don’t confuse with drippy nose post exercise  Coat and skin o Starring coat – long term - worm infestation? o Skin test for dehydration  Sweating o Pain or discomfort o More immediate sign  Swellings o Glands / throat – worst case Strangles  Don’t confuse with grass glands o Legs – check stance  Resting forelimb not good  Resting hindlimb may be ok o Body  Rash – seasonal – insects? Nettles?  Allergies – medicines – feed: protein build up? Lots of these things self correct or need minimal treatment. However, it is vital that you remain vigilant From Week 1 theory

Answer 5

Observing the horse  Has he eaten?  Is he drinking?  He is unhappy or grumpy or displaying unusual behaviours  Lying down away from the group?  Check the bed  Droppings o Texture o Colour  Urine o Urinating excessively or not at all o Clear to yellow o Dark / purpley with strong smell – problem From Week 1 theory

Answer 6

Signs of good health Temperature 38 Pulse 36-42 beats/min Respiration 8 – 15 breathes/min Good condition, shine to coat Bright eyes Alert, mobile ears Droppings; normal consistency & amount (8-10 daily) & break upon hitting ground Supple skin, skin recoil test, should recoil immediately demonstrating elasticity Mucos membranes – salmon pink, normal response to capillary refill test Eating, drinking normally From Week 1 theory

Answer 7

Signs horse may be off colour .Rise or fall in TPR .Dull staring coat .Poor condition .Loose droppings /too hard /lack of .Skin tight .Lameness /resting a limb .Obvious signs of injury /heat /swelling .Discharge from nose .Inability /lack of will to eat /drink .Looking uncomfortable /rolling excessively .Sweating /coughing /scratching /rubbing From Week 1 theory

Answer 8

Temperature The temperature is taken by inserting the thermometer into the anus of the horse and holding against the side of the rectum. Low readings may be taken if the thermometer is inserted into a ball of faeces by accident.  Rectally  Shake mercury thermometers, digital better?  High temp may indicate o Flu or virus o Inflammation o Bacterial induced from an infection in a wound.  Low temp may indicate o Hypothermia o Loss of blood o Serious illness From Week 1 theory

Answer 9

Pulse  Optimum lower in a fit horse  Higher in an overweight horse  Higher in foals (50-100bpm)  Take at a time when the horse is calm  Digital pulse  Jaw  Pastern  Forearm  Tail From Week 1 theory

Answer 10

Respiration  Faster at rest indication of pain  Heave lines  Watch from the flank or side From Week 1 theory

Answer 11

Basic illnesses  Colic  Laminitis  Mud fever  Sweet itch  Flu / coughs / colds  Azoutria  Skin conditions o Ring worm o Rain scald o Hives The quicker ailments and conditions are reported, the more chance of a speedy recovery and prevention of the ailment becoming more serious or spreading. From Week 1 theory

Answer 12

Prevention  Good feeding  Good exercise  Good stable management  Vaccinations – Flu and tet’ – yearly  Feet – 6-8 weeks  Teeth – 6-12 months  Back – 3 months optimum (6-12?)  Worming From Week 1 theory

Answer 13

YOUR HORSE HEALTH CHECKLIST - DAILY Daily HEART RATE (normal range 28 – 44 beats per minute at rest) RESPIRATORY RATE (normal range 8 – 14 breaths per minute at rest) TEMPERATURE (normal range 37.5ºC – 38.5ºC) DIGITAL PULSE URINATION – FREQUENCY AND HABITS APPETITE DRINKING EYES PICK OUT FEET AND CHECK SHOES (if appropriate) ASSESS DROPPINGS HOOF TEMPERATURE MOVEMENT/STANCE GENERAL DEMEANOUR SKIN From Week 1 theory

Answer 14

YOUR HORSE HEALTH CHECKLIST - MONTHLY BODY CONDITION SCORE THOROUGH SKIN CHECK From Week 1 theory

Answer 15

YOUR HORSE HEALTH CHECKLIST - ANNUAL ROUTINE VET CHECK VACCINATIONS DENTAL CHECK From Week 1 theory

Answer 16

YOUR HORSE HEALTH CHECKLIST - OTHER CHECK TACK AND EQUIPMENT BEFORE USE FWEC/WORMING TREATMENT FOLLOWING VETERINARY ADVICE From Week 1 theory

Answer 17

What is the maximum amount of time a wet poultice should be used for? .You shouldn't really use a wet poultice for more than three days as the foot needs chance to dry. You can dry poultice for a while though. Best to speak with you farrier if you are still concerned. From https://forums.horseandhound.co.uk/threads/foot-abscess-how-long-to-poultice.380432/#:~:text=Be%20careful%20of%20over%20poulticing%20the%20foot.%20You,but%20can%27t%20get%20it%20-%20any%20other%20suggestions%3F Question from Pratical sheet Week 1 and 2

Answer 18

Why might you apply a wet poultice to a foot abscess? .Poultices keep the opening moist and encourage drainage. Changing bandages daily is recommended, as a poultice can dry the foot out if the abscess hasn’t broken. .Soaking the hoof in warm water and Epsom salts (two cups to a gallon) between bandage changes is also a good practice. From Microsoft bing search .A wet poultice (the most common way to apply) is more effective at drawing fluid to out, but a dry poultice could work well if an abscess has a lot of fluid coming out on its own. From https://www.petplanequine.co.uk/events/horse-hoof.asp#:~:text=A%20wet%20poultice%20%28the%20most%20common%20way%20to,Make%20sure%20the%20foot%20is%20clean%20and%20dry. Question from Pratical sheet Week 1 and 2

Answer 19

Basic First Aid First Aid = dealing with minor injuries OR being the first responder to major injuries. Have a first aid kit. Good first aid needs to: .Be administered promptly .Be administered correctly .Limit chances of further injury .Recognise the need to call a vet From Week 1 and 2 practical = Practical First Aid and Bandaging - RECORDED Lecture NotesFile, slide 2

Answer 20

Wound Management .Control the bleeding – apply pressure .Clean, Clean, Clean!!!!!! .Water / Saline Solution / DILUTED chlorhexidine (hibiscrub) .DO NOT apply any creams / ointments / sprays .Dress the wound From Week 1 and 2 practical = Practical First Aid and Bandaging - RECORDED Lecture NotesFile, slide 3

Answer 21

Dressing Wounds Have everything to hand before you start! 1) Dressings -Melolin -Allevyn 2) Soft cotton bandage -Soffban 3) Knitted bandage 4) Cotton wool / Gamgee 5) Vet wrap Refer to videos on Moodle to see how to apply dressings and bandages to leg wounds From Week 1 and 2 practical = Practical First Aid and Bandaging - RECORDED Lecture NotesFile, slides 4 to 8

Answer 22

Bandaging Awkward Areas: Knees and Hocks .Risk to joints (carpal bone and point of hock) .These areas need to be alleviated of pressure .More likely to slip down Refer to video on Moodle to see how to apply a hock bandage correctly From Week 1 and 2 practical = Practical First Aid and Bandaging - RECORDED Lecture NotesFile, slide 9

Answer 23

Do’s and Don’ts of Bandaging Do: .Use clean sterile dressings .Wrap evenly in one direction .Wrap all dressing layers the same direction .Overlap each layer by 50% .Get everything ready before you start Don’t: .Wrap any layer too tight – room for a finger .Have any wrinkles or points of uneven pressure .Apply vet wrap directly to the leg .Have too tight (or too loose) .Leave gaps in the layers From Week 1 and 2 practical = Practical First Aid and Bandaging - RECORDED Lecture NotesFile, slide 12

Answer 24

Hoof Problems Hot Hooves = Problems!!!!!!!!!! -Laminitis -Abscess .Feel for heat in your horse’s hooves everyday – know what is normal .Notice any difference in heat level between feet .Feel for a Digital Pulse; BOUNDING = INFLAMMATION From Week 1 and 2 practical = Practical First Aid and Bandaging - RECORDED Lecture NotesFile, slide 13

Answer 25

What is a Hoof Abscess? .Also known as “pus in the foot” – EXACTLY that!! A build up of infected pus in the hoof. Occurs when tiny cracks appear in the dry hoof wall that allow moisture, dirt, and bacteria to get in. .This leads to infection and a build up of pus .Very quickly becomes VERY painful for the horse .They will be very lame and find it hard to put their foot to the floor. .Watch out for swelling of the pastern - a sign that the infection is going up the leg. If this happens, call your vet immediately. How to treat it??? -Farrier can dig it out if they can locate where it is -Vet can apply a small hole to allow for drainage -Hoof abscesses are routinely treated with a poultice “draw” it out From Week 1 and 2 practical = Practical First Aid and Bandaging - RECORDED Lecture NotesFile, slide 16

Answer 26

What is a poultice? .Type of dressing that is put onto the horse hoof designed to draw out an abscess that has formed .It normally comes in the shape of a horses hoof – or can be cut to size. .Can be applied wet (placed in cooled boiled water) or dry .A wet is more effective at drawing fluid out, but a dry poultice could work work well if an abscess has a lot of Fluid coming out on its own. .Used to draw out infection and keep the area clean to prevent further reinfection. .Modern poultice dressings (such as Animalintex) contain boric acid and tragacanth, which work as an antiseptic and help draw out the pus. From Week 1 and 2 practical = Practical First Aid and Bandaging - RECORDED Lecture NotesFile, slide 17

Answer 27

Applying a Poultice 1) Make sure the infected hoof has been cleaned thoroughly before you start. It must be clean and dry. 2) If you are using a wet poultice; remove from the cooled previously boiled water and squeeze the excess water out 3) Apply to the foot. 4) Wrap a layer of soft padding such as Gamgee or Soffban bandage (or even a nappy) over the top of the poultice and around the foot. 5) Focus your attention to cushioning soft tissue areas like the heel bulbs and the coronary band. 6) Now apply the Vet wrap around the hoof to hold it all in place. Not too tight to cause pressure over the soft tissues, but not too loose either as it will fall off. 7) Use the heavy duty strips of duct taped – that you should have already cut and prepped - placing it over the sole of the foot and up the sides of the hoof wall. 8) This will create a create a waterproof layer and to keep the dirt out. 9) Place Elastoplast and more duct tape over the top to ensure it is secure. 10) You can also use a poultice boot, or thick plastic haylage bags or feed sacks to keep moisture and dirt out. 11) Change the poultice at least once a day, or more if there's a lot of pus coming out. 12) Only use a wet poultice for two to three days at a time, then switch to a dry poultice. .If you leave a wet poultice any longer the wound and hoof will get waterlogged, which may weaken the foot. .Refer to Moodle for a video showing how to apply a poultice From Week 1 and 2 practical = Practical First Aid and Bandaging - RECORDED Lecture NotesFile, slides 18 and 19

Answer 28

First Aid Kit (Equine) The following would be a suggested list of contents for a full equine first aid kit:  Clean bowl or bucket  Clean towel  Large roll of cotton wool  Round-ended curved scissors for trimming hair from wound edges  Anti-bacterial scrub eg Hibiscrub or Pevidine  Pack of sterile saline — very handy when on the move  Ready-to-use poultice eg Animalintex, Poultex  Wound gel eg Intrasite Gel  Non-stick dressings eg Melolin, Rondopad  Gamgee and large scissors for cutting it to size  A selection of bandages including: - Stretch cotton bandages eg Knit-firm, K-band and crepe bandages - Adhesive bandages eg Elastoplast - Elastic conforming self-adhesive bandages eg Vetrap, Co- plus - Tubular bandage eg Tubigrip - Synthetic orthopaedic bandage eg Soffban - A set of stable bandages  A roll of electrical insulating tape 2cm wide  A roll of black PVC tape or silver duct tape 7.5 or 10cm wide  A gentian violet or antibiotic spray  Petroleum jelly eg Vaseline  Wound powder containing fly repellent  Wound gel such as Dermagel, intrasite gel or vetalintex  Small pair of tweezers  Thermometer  Paper and pencil  A bright torch for inspecting wounds in poor light From Practical week 1 and 2 Additional Reading/Resources: Equine First Aid Kit - Checklist from pony club

Answer 29

Most bandages include the same two to three layers: .Topical dressing, which might be a liniment, medicated pad, ointment, or powder. These are generally used in horses with injuries or skin conditions. .Thick cotton padding such as practical (roll) cotton, layers of sheet cotton, cast padding, or fabric quilt or pillow wraps. .Compressive/securing layer such as stable/track bandage, Vetrap, gauze, polo wrap, elastic tape, or stockinette. From Week 1 and 2 further reading link below https://thehorse.com/115469/horse-bandaging-fundamentals/

Answer 30

Bandaging tips 1. Keep everyone safe. Preventing human injuries is just as important as treating or preventing equine ones. The person applying the bandage should avoid kneeling or sitting on the ground, says Dechant, and should instead crouch, ready to move out of the way if necessary. She also recommends having a competent handler hold the horse during the process. Bear in mind, too, that some horses initially resent wraps on the hind legs, especially over the hocks, so it’s best to apply these in an open area in case the horse kicks out. 2. Don’t skimp on the padding. “Insufficient padding is going to cause a bandage bow,” says Hanson. Padding should be clean, dry, and in reasonable shape, Dechant adds. Since the idea of the padding is to protect the leg, it’s important to avoid incorporating frayed bits of padding or fill that contains wrinkles or bunches–these can cause pressure points under a bandage. 3. Keep it even under pressure. Remember that “anything directly against the skin should not be applied with any tension at all,” Dechant says. But uneven tension in a bandage’s securing layers also can potentially cause tendon damage. “You want an even distribution of compression along the leg” with this layer, too, says Hanson. “The key is to apply it firmly but not too tightly,” Dechant adds. If using Vetrap or a similar flexible bandage to secure the padding, she suggests applying enough tension to remove 80% of the wrap’s innate “wrinkles.” She also stresses the importance of overlapping layers of bandage by 50% to avoid having edges of the wrap material dig into the leg. Using a neatly and tightly rolled bandage will ease application and reduce the need to pull against the horse’s leg and sensitive tendons to tighten the wrap. This will also help ensure the bandage is as smooth against the horse’s leg as possible to avoid uneven pressure. 4. Choose your own direction. Despite barn lore to the contrary, neither sources believe the direction a wrap is applied is critical. “Counterclockwise vs. clockwise is less important than technique,” says Dechant. “I don’t think the tendons care if they’re rolled to the outside or to the inside. However, each layer should be rolled the same (direction).” Hanson agrees with Dechant, noting that he hasn’t come across anything in literature to suggest wrapping in one direction or the other is superior. It is, however, important to be consistent in your technique and not to pull too tightly across the tendons. 5. Keep it clean. Shavings, straw, dirt, and moisture can irrate the skin and increase the risk of a wound becoming infected. Start with clean, dry materials and check the bandage frequently for damage, dirt, or moisture. To seal out debris, Dechant recommends securing the top and bottom of a disposable-type wrap with elastic tape such as Elastikon. From Week 1 and 2 further reading link below https://thehorse.com/115469/horse-bandaging-fundamentals/

Answer 31

Foot abscess process .A foot abscess is a localised infection within the hoof, which forms a pocket of pus within the hoof horn. This usually develops due to a tiny penetration of the foot, for example, by a sharp stone. Bacteria are implanted into the deeper layers of the sole, and the more superficial layers then close over the top, trapping the infection. This can happen up to several weeks before any signs are seen, and usually goes totally unnoticed. .After an average of 10-14 days, the bacteria have grown, and enough pus has accumulated that there is a large pressure build up. This pressure pushes on nerves within the foot and causes often excruciating pain. There is also significant inflammation within the foot, which can be noticed as a bounding digital pulse, and a degree of heat in the hoof wall. Lameness will also develop at this point, which will often be so severe that the horse is unwilling to place their foot on the ground. This is the time at which the vet is often called. From week 1 and 2 further reading link below https://equine-vets.com/health/f/foot-abscess/

Answer 32

Identifying Lameness • Step 1: Look at the horse static and take history. • Step 2: initial assessment. Walk and trot straight line, (flexion tests, hoof and joint tests), lunging on both firm and soft surface, palpation of limbs, back and neck. Ridden exam. • What are we looking and feeling for when we palpate? • Why different surfaces? • Why circle? • Step 3: Diagnostic procedures. –nerve blocks then once area of concern located xrays/ultrasound potentially bone scans/MRI From week 2 theory

Answer 33

Lameness protocol • Before static assessment always ensure: – The horse is standing square on a firm, even surface – View from cranial, lateral and caudal • Look • Feel – Logical • Dynamic assessment : – View from cranial, lateral and caudal • Looking for: – Straightness – Width – Length of stride – Travel • Initially straight lines on a hard surface • May also use soft surface and look at the horse ridden. • LISTEN. From week 2 theory

Answer 34

lameness in FL or HL? Forelimb • Head nod on sound limb • Louder landing on sound limb • Increased fetlock extension on sound limb Hindlimb • Looking from behind the hip is hitched and the lame limb appears to be carried higher than the non-lame limb. • Occasionally head nod on lame limb • Louder landing and fetlock extension on sound limb • “Back pain” From week 2 theory

Answer 35

Location of lameness • Ligament • Tendon • Foot • Joint • Muscle From week 2 theory

Answer 36

Where Gait Phase for lameness Upper Limb Lameness • Swing phase • Muscular • Joints above carpus/tarsus • Bones Lower Limb Lameness • Stance phase • Joints below carpus/hock • Tendons • Bones From week 2 theory

Answer 37

Lameness Prevalence • 8-13% of horses experience lameness each year – 70% recover • Distribution – Load 60% FL – 40% HL • Up to 95% of FL lameness distal to carpus • HL lameness less common, but not to be dismissed From week 2 theory

Answer 38

Importance of a Thorough Assessment for lameness • Ridden assessment more important than previously thought – Estimated 12% of lameness is only apparent when ridden • Rider ability important and should be standardised where possible for assessment • Assess in trot and on both diagonals. • Subtle lameness may require more intensive work. From week 2 theory

Answer 39

Lameness Assessment tips • Consider the relative quality of the trot and the canter. • Pain often causes generalised restriction of movement – The horse may fail to track up – The horse may become heavy in the rider’s hand – Unwillingness/tension • Low grade forelimb lameness – The horse may take slightly lame steps on turns • Assess body lean – should be symmetrical. • Problems in canter often manifest first. • With hindlimb lameness it is typical that there are difficulties in movements requiring more collection. • Saddle slip may be indicative of lameness. – Saddle slip with HL lameness >86% occurs to the side of the lame limb. From week 2 theory

Answer 40

Grading Lameness 0 Lameness not perceptible under any circumstances 1 Lameness is difficult to observe and is not consistently apparent, regardless of circumstances 2 Lameness is difficult to observe at a walk or when trotting in a straight line but consistently apparent under certain circumstances 3 Lameness is consistently observable at a trot under all circumstances 4 Lameness is obvious at a walk 5 Lameness produces minimal weightbearing in motion and/or at rest or a complete inability to move From week 2 theory

Answer 41

Conditions of the Foot Most common cause of lameness in forelimb. Multiple structures can be affected; • Bruising • Abscess • Wall cracks • Sole - penetrations/punctures • Laminar problems • Collateral cartilage • Coffin/pastern joints • Navicular bone/bursa • Hygiene issues From week 2 theory

Answer 42

Soft Tissue Structures • Tendons – Transfer of muscle contraction into skeletal movement – Increase locomotory efficiency by storing and releasing energy • Ligaments – Align and stabilise adjacent bones – Passive resistance to motion From week 2 theory

Answer 43

Common Soft Tissue Injuries • Discipline related injury types – SDFT • Increased risk factors; fast work; age; firmer surface; weight and hoof conformation – DDFT • More commonly seen in SJ, Endurance and Dr (age?) – Proximal suspensory desmitis – SJ, dressage – Tendonitis From week 2 theory

Answer 44

Tendons • Injury occurrence 11% -46% • Re-injury in 43% - 93% • Common reason for retirement • Diagnosis? From week 2 theory

Answer 45

Tendon Injury • Extrinsic – Sharp laceration – Traumatic blow – Damage to ECM and cells • Intrinsic – Degenerative condition – Overuse injury • Mechanical influences – Cumulative microdamage – Single acute overload • Hyperthermia – Loss of stored energy as heat – Up to 45º in gallop • Poor blood flow – Limited during maximal loading – Reperfusion injury From week 2 theory

Answer 46

Tendon Treatment and Rehab • Immediately – 10-14 days – Reduce inflammation – NSAIDs? – Support – Rest • Cold therapy – Gold standard? • Controlled Exercise • Additional treatments? • Regimen individual to horse and situation From week 2 theory

Answer 47

Muscle Injury Phase 1: Necrosis and Inflammation Phase 2: Regeneration, Repair, Remodel Phase 3: Remodelling and Fibrosis Predisposing factors? Diagnosis? Treatment – RICE? Recovering time? RICE principle? .Rest - First 24-48 hours critical treatment period .Ice - For first 48 hours post-injury - 20 minutes every 3-4 hours .Maybe Compression .Maybe Elevation From week 2 theory

Answer 48

Joints • Composed of – Bone – Cartilage – Peri-articular soft tissues • All involved in joint disease • Cartilage probably most important – Load-distribution – Frictionless gliding – Altered structure and function leads to abnormalities in all tissues From week 2 theory

Answer 49

Joint Injury • Osteoarthritis – Degeneration and loss of articular cartilage – Development of new bone on joint surfaces and margins – Number of potential causes • Puncture injury near the site of a joint • Repetitive microtrauma – Damage to healthy cartilage • Subchondral bone sclerosis Increased bone stiffness Abnormal stresses on cartilage Mechanical damage From week 2 theory

Answer 50

Joint Injury: Assessment • Pain attributed to peri-articular soft tissues and bone • Limited range of motion • Effusion – Destabilisation of joint From week 2 theory

Answer 51

Week 2 Summary theory • Most tissues heal in a similar fashion starting with inflammation • Mild lameness without obvious heat or swelling can initially be treated with rest • More severe or chronic lameness or if obvious heat or swelling present – Should be attended to by vet • Prognosis for future athletic use depends on type and site of lesion From week 2 theory

Answer 52

What do we mean by biosecurity .Dictionary definitions –procedures or measures designed to protect the population against harmful biological or biochemical substances (i.e. biosecurity risks) .Biosecurity is set of measures aimed at preventing the introduction and/or spread of harmful organisms (i.e. biosecurityrisks), in order to minimise the risk of transmission of infectious diseases to people, animals and plants. .Main factors/routes of transmission -Humans -Weather -Animals -Food From week 3 lecture

Answer 53

Routes of transmission: animals Direct animal-animal contact: • at markets or shows, • new animals introduced to farm, • fence-line contact, • within farm contacts. Fomites & vectors: • Aborted foetus – Equine herpesvirus type 1 • pets – toxoplasmosis, • wildlife – Birds (e.g. salmonella), Badgers (bTB), • pests - Rats (leptospira), Flies & midges (salmonella, bluetongue, African Horse sickness, West Nile fever). Human Mechanical transmission: • Carrying of disease causing organisms – hands – clothing – footwear – equipment (e.g. head collar) – vehicles Weather: Wind • The viral plume from an animal infected with Foot and Mouth can spread 500 m down wind. • Likely to be similar for equine influenza. • Could carry infected insects (e.g. midges). Rain • Flooding – transfer of microorganisms in flood water. From week 3 lecture

Answer 54

Zoonosis, zoonotic disease .Diseases and infections which are naturally transmitted between vertebrate animals and humans (WHO 1959) 1. Humans can get some animal diseases 2. Animals can get human diseases (Reverse Zoonoses) From week 3 lecture

Answer 55

Biosecurity risk: Food Not the main risk. However: • lead, copper and other heavy metals intoxication, • ergot – cereal fungus (Claviceps purpurea), • atypical myopathy (sycamore seeds, leaves and seedlings, toxin), • equine grass sickness (Clostridium botulinum toxins), • equine asthma (dust, mould, toxins…), • guttural pouch mycosis (Aspergillus fumigatus). From week 3 lecture

Answer 56

Benefits of Biosecurity • Reduced the risk and occurrence of diseases, • improved animal health & welfare, • reduced stress for owners, • reduced need and costs of treatment (e.g. antimicrobial resistance). From week 3 lecture

Answer 57

Benefits of reduced livestock disease • Reduced disruption of farming and rural businesses, • improved productivity and performance, • improved quality of marketable produce, • reduced risk of transmission of diseases that can spread to humans, e.g. Salmonella spp, E.coli etc, • protected export markets, • potential to improve the quality of the environment as a consequence of the reduced disposal of wastes. From - (DARDNI, Department of Agriculture, Environment and Rural Affairs is a government department in the Northern Ireland, 2004) From week 3 lecture

Answer 58

Biosecurity: at what level to apply? • Herd/farm level (internal & external) – Individual business issues. • National level – Individual country issues. • Global level – Between Country issues. From week 3 lecture

Answer 59

Farm biosecurity - internal Between groups of animals : • livestock batches, • age groups • ≠ susceptibility (e.g. foals for rhodococcus equi infection), • specific status (e.g. pregnant mares for equine herpesvirus type-1 infection and risk of abortion), • etc. From week 3 lecture

Answer 60

prevention of Rhodococcus equi infection aka RATTLES) .Rhodococcus equi infection can induce abscesses in the lung and abdomen, joint infection, osteomyelitis, diarrhea, lymph nodes inflammation et. .This disease primarily affects foals less than 6 months of age. .The bacteria is present in soil,manure and feces (e.g. horses). Foals are infected by inhalation of contaminated dust. .Risk: pastures with low grass cover for mares and foals in the suceptible period (equiways). .The main vector is contaminated dust .Preventive measures -move regularly water troughs when it is possible or reseed or water regularly. -Remove regularly droppings from paddocks with mares and foals at foot. -Do not use dust ground for young foals - muck out regularly. -Suitable floor for foals. -Clean dust from Equipment. -Identify area at risk and/or contaminated. From Research project: LABÉO/Equiways (R.Paillot/C.Vercken) From week 3 lecture

Answer 61

Farm Biosecurity - external .Vaccination .Isolating incoming livestock and sick livestock .Boot dips .Pick up/drop off areas - so dust from vehicles not getting into foal area. .Dedicated clothing .Washing /Disinfection facilities .Separate herd/wildlife and neighbouring livestock - by double fencing. From week 3 lecture

Answer 62

Farm biosecurity: multiples elements to take into account • Horse movement (e.g. stallion, mares, foals). • Other animals (e.g. dogs). • Human activities (e.g. veterinarians, farrier). • Vehicle movement. • Materials. From week 3 lecture

Answer 63

National Level Biosecurity • preventing diseases entering the country, • controlling the spread of infectious diseases across the country. From week 3 lecture

Answer 64

Equine Influenza biosecurity • Endemic in most countries, • highly contagious, • most outbreaks are associated with movement. Main elements of prevention: • surveillance, • vaccination, • movement restriction, • Containment (quarantine). From week 3 lecture

Answer 65

Notifiable Diseases .What are they? A list of diseases with potential for rapid spread and serious economic or public health implications, which require legislation to co-ordinate control actions. They have a significant impact on one of more of: • International Trade (e.g. export health certificates), • Public Health (zoonotic diseases), • Animal Welfare (and human), • Wider Society (e.g. restriction, reputation). Taking into account: • Cost to the community (needs to be reasonable), • Availability of appropriate solutions. From week 3 lecture

Answer 66

Notifiable Diseases in the UK .‘Notifiable’ diseases are animal diseases that you’re legally obliged to report to the Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA), even if you only suspect that an animal may be affected. Failure to report a suspect of notifiable animal disease is treated as an offence! .Some endemic and exotic diseases are also zoonotic. Notifiable diseases can be: • Endemic – already present in the UK, such as bovine TB • Exotic – not normally present in the UK, such as foot and mouth disease Website - https://www.gov.uk/government/collections/notifiable-diseases-in-animals From week 3 lecture

Answer 67

Notifiable disease African Horse Sickness virus (AHSV) .African Horse Sickness virus (AHSV) : Reoviridae family, Orbivirus genus ; spread via bitting midges (culicoides). • Exotic disease (endemic in South Africa; outbreak in Thailandin 2020) • Pulmonary form: Fever, incubation period of 3-5 days, laboured breathing, foamy discharge. 90% mortality. • Cardiac form: Swelling over face, eyes, death from heart failure, incubation period of 7-14 days. 60% mortality. website - https://thehorse.com/148892/researchers-digging-deeper-into-african-horse-sickness/ From week 3 lecture

Answer 68

Zoonotic diseases (e.g. West Nile Fever) .In humans, West Nile virus (WNV) can cause a disease known as West Nile fever. Around 80% of infected people have few or no symptoms, around 20% of people develop mild symptoms (such as fever, headache, vomiting, or a rash). Less than 1% of people develop severe symptoms (e.g. encephalitis or meningitis). WNV can induce a neurological disease in horses. In wild birds, from no signs to death. .Yearly spread of WNV throughout the U.S. 1999–2002. Counties reporting WNV activity in humans (red) and non-human e.g., birds, mosquitoes, equines, and other mammals (blue), as reported to CDC ArboNet.” (Roehrig J.T., Viruses, 2013). From week 3 lecture

Answer 69

Recognising Signs of Distress • Key for more subtle injury/illness • Assessment of health protocol – TPR – Behaviour – Skin pliability – Colour of mucous membranes – Colour and consistency of feces and urine – Presence of absence of gut sounds – Evidence of lameness – Bleeding, swelling or evidence of pain

Answer 70

Ring up vet asap .Respiratory distress .Inability to rise or stand .Notably painful or severe diarrhea .Gut pain with acute onset or colic .Unwell foals .Prolonged/abnormal sweating, high temperature, anxiety, restlessness or loss of appetite .VERY serious injury involving deep wounds, severe hemorrhage, suspected fractures or damage to the eyes .Evidence of straining >30 mins in foaling mares .Together with any other signs of acute pain or injury From SLIDES - What is an Equine Health Emergency

Answer 71

Immediate veterinary attention • Fractured limb • A collapsed horse that is unable to stand • Non-weight bearing lameness coupled with distress • Non-weight bearing lameness coupled with a wound • Multiple limb non-weight bearing lameness • Wounds that require stitching • Colic pain that is moderate or violent and/or continuous • Diarrhoea that is continuous and/or painful • Choke where coupled with obvious distress • Sudden or severe inability to breathe normally • Punctured or ulcerated eye or sudden onset blindness • Continuous bleeding from mouth, nostrils, rectum, vagina, penis, or an arterial bleed • Sudden onset of severe neurological dysfunction • Difficulties at foaling • A sick foal, especially if it will not feed from the dam From SLIDES - What is an Equine Health Emergency

Answer 72

Waiting for the Vet to Arrive 1. Keep the horse calm. 2. Secure horse and human safety. 3. Arrange and coordinate help 4. Contact your vet. Be ready with key information. 5. Follow any instructions provided by the vet. 6. Do not administer drugs unless specifically instructed to do so by your vet. From SLIDES - What is an Equine Health Emergency

Answer 73

What might the vet need to know? IMPORTANT • How lame is the horse? • How much pain is a horse in? • Can you take your horse's temperature and pulse rate? What is their breathing like? • If there is a wound, specifically where on the horses’ body is it? Do the edges of the wound pull apart? Is it clean or dirty? From SLIDES - What is an Equine Health Emergency

Answer 74

Prompt but not immediate vet attention required Lameness – Marked lameness that has not responded to normal first aid treatment – Sudden onset lameness that is weight bearing Injury – Traumatic injuries and wounds that are superficial – Injury that has not responded to normal first aid treatment Signs of non-specific ill health – Persistent weight loss/sustained loss of appetite – Signs of disease that might be infectious – Sub acute illness or injury • Very mild colic* • Potential lymphangitis • Flare ups of chronic laminitis • Flare ups of chronic inflammatory respiratory disease Note that these conditions are likely to require assistance from the vet in the form of an initial phone call but are then frequently monitored to ascertain if in person veterinary attention is required. From SLIDES - What is an Equine Health Emergency

Answer 75

Routine veterinary treatment required • Intermittent and slight lameness • Persistent dermatitis • Intermittent and slight eye discharge • Reduced appetite with no other clinical signs • Nasal discharge with no fever or difficulty breathing • Persistent coughing • Anything else that sits outside the normal behaviour and health for your horse From SLIDES - What is an Equine Health Emergency

Answer 76

Emergency Action Plan Having a plan is KEY to avoid panic 1. Contact details of your vet. 2. Have a contingency contact. 3. Know the most direct route to your vets and how long it takes. 4. Help and assistance. 5. Accessible and current first aid kit both on the yard and in vehicles/trailers. Owner Absence • Clear instructions in case of emergency – Who is responsible if you are not available • Your horse’s passport preferably signed, etc • Information regarding insurance cover • Referral plan? Payment for emergency treatment if insurance is not in place? Part of a livery contract? Review yearly. From SLIDES - What is an Equine Health Emergency

Answer 77

Key Equine Diseases and Infections Strangles Equine Influenza Ringworm Tetanus Key Disorders/Conditions: Colic Laminitis Choke 'Tying Up' From week 4 lecture

Answer 78

Strangles .Prevalent infectious respiratory disease .Transmission via infected respiratory droplets but not airborne Symptoms: .High temp - first .Lethargy/depression .Reluctance to eat/drink, difficulty swallowing and/or lowered head and neck .Thick and discoloured nasal discharge .A cough .Swelling of glands under the jaw -Lymph node enlargement -Abscess development Strangles: Prevention .Best Defence: Quarantine and test all new arrivals! .Vaccination: Can be useful in open management systems .Detailed prevention plan and policies! From week 4 lecture

Answer 79

Traffic Light System On suspicion of infection, the yard should be divided into different areas: .Red Zone: high risk horses with signs of the disease .Amber Zone: medium risk – horses that have been in contact with infected horses but are not yet showing signs of the disease . .Green Zone: low risk – horses which have not been in contact with infected horses From week 4 lecture

Answer 80

Strangles: An Outbreak Initial Control -Limit spread of infection within the premises Containment -Prevent further spread of infection to new premises 'Clean-Up' -Identify carriers and treat From week 4 lecture

Answer 81

Equine Influenza .Highly contagious, viral, infectious disease .Indirect and direct spread .Unlike other infections the flu virus does not survive for long outside of the horse .Airbourne - isolation of horses need 100 meters apart From week 4 lecture

Answer 82

Equine Influenza: Symptoms .High Temperature (Pyrexia) - first sign .Clear, watery discharge which may later (in a few days) become thick and yellow/green in colour .Coughing .Reduced appetite .Swollen and painful glands around the jaw From week 4 lecture

Answer 83

Equine Influenza: An Outbreak .Traffic Light System Consider how it is spread! -Isolation facilities -Restrict movement on/off the yard From week 4 lecture

Answer 84

Ringworm (Dermatophytosis) .Fungal skin infection. Two main strands of fungus: -Trichophyton -Microsporum .Highly contagious! .Zoonotic .Incubation period of 2-3 weeks .Spreads quickly by direct contact .Can survive for many years on wooden surfaces From week 4 lecture

Answer 85

Ringworm: Symptoms .Various presentations -Skin lesions -Hair loss -Scabbing .Can become extensive if not treated From week 4 lecture

Answer 86

Ringworm: Controlling an Outbreak .Separate grooming kit, tack, etc. .Handler care – over clothes, dealt with last the horse that is ill .Thorough disinfection of environment (grooming kit, rugs, stables, fencing etc.) From week 4 lecture

Answer 87

Tetanus .Also known as tonic spasm, tetany and lock jaw .Caused by the toxin of the clostridium tetani bacteria -Attacks the horse's CNS, pulling the tendons, ligaments and muscles taut -Highly fatal infectious disease .Incubation period: 7-21 days .Prevention is better than cure! -Poor prognosis unless diagnosed and treated aggressively early on. Highly fatal .Not contagious From week 4 lecture

Answer 88

Tetanus: Symptoms .Protrusion of the 3rd eyelid .Stiff gait/stance .Elevated tail .Shaking .Muscle spasms .Difficulty swallowing (dysphagia) .Sweating From week 4 lecture

Answer 89

Colic: Symptoms .Sweating .Lack of gut noises .Abnormal behaviours: -Kicking or biting at the stomach -Lying down or rolling repeatedly -Uncomfortable, reluctance to eat .Reduced or no passing of droppings From week 4 lecture

Answer 90

Colic .Abdominal pain which may range from mild to life-threatening. -falls into various categories, depending on the specific underlying cause. .Different Types of Colic -Impaction - Caused by a blockage in the intestine - could be from worms. No gut sounds or reduced. -Spasmodic - Characterised by increased intestinal contractions. -Tympanic (gaseous) - A build-up of gas in the intestine. From eating sugary foods. -Sand - Inflammation or blockage of the intestine resulting from ingested sand. From week 4 lecture

Answer 91

REACT to Colic .BHS scheme run in conjunction with the University of Nottingham below R Restless or agitated E Eating less or dropping reduced A Abdominal pain C Clinical changes T Tired or lethargic .Vet attention needed From week 4 lecture

Answer 92

Laminitis .Systemic condition that manifests in the foot .Can be sub-divided into 3 main categories: -Endocrinopathic -Sepsis-related -Supporting limb laminitis/mechanical overload .Prevalence - 1 in every 10 horses/ponies developing at least one bout of laminitis each year* (Pollard et al., 2018) - >50% of cases waiting >10 days to seek veterinary intervention – why? .High recurrence From week 4 lecture

Answer 93

Laminitis: Symptoms .General signs of pain .The feet may be hot .Increased digital pulse .Soreness in the feet/shifting of weight/laying down/unwillingness to move/lameness .Simple sugar difficulty digesting and causes build up of toxins in blood and reduced blood supply in hoof causes lanimae to detatch from hoof wall Most prevalent owner- reported signs: Difficulty turning Short/stilted or lame walk From week 4 lecture

Answer 94

Laminitis: Action Required .Call your vet immediately -Serious changes associated with the disease occur within the first 72 hours. • Any potential cause should be removed e.g. high sugar food • Chronic cases - mild attacks that come back frequently. Have a management plan From week 4 lecture

Answer 95

Choke .Obstruction in the oesophagus .Characterised by: -Feed material coming out of the horse’s nose -Discomfort and signs of distress -Coughing, gaging or straining when trying to swallow .Action required - stop horse from eating, massage area From week 4 lecture

Answer 96

Exertional Rhabdomyolysis Syndrome (ERS) Also known as: -Azoturia -Monday morning disease -Tying-up -Paralytic myoglobinuria -Setfast A description of a horse with muscle damage that could have numerous causes. From week 4 lecture

Answer 97

Exertional Rhabdomyolysis Syndrome (ERS) symptoms .Stiffness .Sweating .Reluctance to move .Posture as if to urinate? .Elevated pulse 100bmp at rest and respiration Actions required .Stop exercising, do not force the horse to walk .Call the vet .Rug the horse in cold weather (keep warm) .Provide access to water From week 4 lecture

Answer 98

Endoparasites .A parasite that lives inside its host like a tapeworm From week 5 lecture

Answer 99

Strongyloides westeri Taxonomy (Threadworm) .Phylum: Nematoda. .Family: Strongyloididae .Superfamily: Rhabditoidea .Genus: Strongyloides .Species: westeri .Common Name: Threadworm .Size: <1cm x 1mm .Importance: low .Intestinal threadworm commonly infecting young foals .Associated with intestinal enteritis .The pre-patent period is 8-15 days .Eggs have been found in the faeces of foals within 2 weeks of experimental infection. .Pathogenesis unclear – however unique amongst helminths as 3 possible transmission routes: -Lactogenic – most important for foals -Oral -Percutaneous From week 5 lecture

Answer 100

Strongyloides westeri Taxonomy (Threadworm) Epidemiology .Direct lifecycle -no intermediate host .Few large scale prevalence studies exist -Typically found in faeces on 5-50% on managed foals < 2 months of age .Mares harbour larvae in hypobiotic stage in tissues which are reactivated during parturition -Migrate to mammary gland .Larvae can be isolated in milk at 5 days post partum -Highest concentration 10-14 days -Last seen c. 45 days -Can be identified in foals as young as 5 days From week 5 lecture

Answer 101

Strongyloides westeri Taxonomy (Threadworm) Lifecycle .Infection common in foals 2 weeks to 4 months .Animals immune generally immune after 6 months .Severe infection may cause diarrhoea .Infected by larvae in the mare’s milk .In the gut they migrate to lungs and then coughed up, swallowed and on reaching the intestines mature into adults .Easily controlled by most wormers From week 5 lecture

Answer 102

Strongyloides westeri Taxonomy (Threadworm) Pathogenesis .Foals generally infected via dam's milk, but percutaneous infection can also occur → threadworms in small intestine → diarrhoea .Reservoir of larvae in mare's tissue release larvae triggered to migrate to the mammary glands and thus pass to the foal in milk .Alternatively, worms can penetrate the skin causing local erythema gaining access to the body before migrating to the intestine .In the foal they develop into mature threadworms in the small intestine (where only the female worms are parasitic) From week 5 lecture

Answer 103

Strongyloides westeri Taxonomy (Threadworm) Transmission Here they cause catarrhal lesions with oedema and erosions of the mucosal epithelium → impairment of digestion and absorption → diarrhoea Eggs are passed in faeces One or several free-living generations may occur before a third stage infective larvae is produced The pathology is due to worms causing inflammation of the anterior third of the SI with villous atrophy and increased numbers of lymphocytes in the lamina propria From week 5 lecture

Answer 104

Oxyuris equi Taxonomy (Pinworm) Phylum: Nematoda. Superfamily: Oxyuroidea. Family: Oxyuridae Genus: Oxyuris Species: equi Common Name: Pinworm Size: ~1-6cm (thin pointed tail denouncing name) Importance: Low From week 5 lecture

Answer 105

Oxyuris equi (Pinworm) Transmission By ingestion of infective eggs off contaminated fomites Eggs remain stuck to the perineal area for several days before dropping or being rubbed off onto fomites or bedding Eggs are very susceptible to dessication and so those outdoors usually die Heavy infections can occur in stabled horses where eggs are at high concentrations in damp areas such as mangers or bedding Causes terrible itching and subsequent hair loss under, on and around the tail From week 5 lecture

Answer 106

Oxyuris equi (Pinworm) Pathogenesis Adult worms cause pruritus during egg-laying Adult worms crawl out of anus to lay worms on the skin around the tail Horses rub tail area causing damage to hairs of tail head, 'rat-tailed' appearance L4 larvae may cause inflammation of intestinal mucosa as erosions caused by feeding (rare) - Otherwise not a typical intestinal parasite Local irritation around anus can be controlled by sponging anal area to remove eggs From week 5 lecture

Answer 107

Oxyuris equi (Pinworm) Management .Long lifecycle – c. 5 months - Immature stages less sensitive to wormers and may survive treatment Sellotape Test: 1.Collect the sample in the morning, ideally before 9am. Pinworm are most active at night so this will give the best chance of detecting any activity that is present. 2.Take a 4” length of clear sticky tape and press this firmly onto the skin around the anus (not the hair). 3.Fold the tape in half, sticky side to sticky side. 4.Look for eggs under the microscope .Ensure fomites are regularly cleaned and disinfected .Good “under tail” hygiene important From week 5 lecture

Answer 108

Habronema spp. Taxonomy (stomach worm) Phylum: Nematoda Class: Secernetea Order: Spidurida Family: Habronematidae Genus: Habronema Common Name: Stomach worm Size: 6-25mm dep on spp. Importance: Low (rare) From week 5 lecture

Answer 109

Habronema spp. Taxonomy (stomach worm) Phylum: Nematoda Class: Secernetea Order: Spidurida Family: Habronematidae Genus: Habronema Common Name: Stomach worm Size: 6-25mm dep on spp. Importance: Low (rare) From week 5 lecture

Answer 110

Habronema spp. (stomach worm) Epidemiology .Habitat -Uses muscidae fly as an intermediate host -Worldwide distribution but infection prevalence increases with warmer climates. -Cutaneous lesions “summer sores” often found in spring and summer due to increased activity of the intermediate hosts .Transmission -Adult flies transmit larvae from faeces to horses. From week 5 lecture

Answer 111

Habronema spp. (stomach worm) Lifecycle Eggs/L1 are passed in faeces from infected horses. L1 are ingested by larval stages of intermediate hosts (house and stable flies) L1 develop to L3 in synchrony with intermediate hosts development to maturity When the adult flies feed around the muzzle of horses the L3 larvae pass from its mouthparts and are swallowed L3 larvae burrow into the mucosa of the horses stomach forming nodules L3 larvae develop to mature adults after around 8 weeks in the nodules and produce eggs From week 5 lecture

Answer 112

Habronema spp. (stomach worm) Pathogenesis Adult helminths in stomach cause a (usually) sub-clinical gastritis Larvae deposited on skin, open wounds or chronically wet areas on the horse can cause pruritic granulomous lesions Occular granulomous lesions cause discharge and chronic conjunctivitis Larvae deposited around male genitalia may cause oedema around the lesions, with occasionally massive lesions developing on male genitalia (Penis Habronemiasis) Lesions in lungs due to migrating larvae have also been reported. From week 5 lecture

Answer 113

Dictyocaulus arnfieldi Taxonomy (Lung worm) Phylum: Nematoda Superfamily: Trichostrongyloidea Family: Dictyocaulidae Genus: Dictyocaulus Species: Common Name: Lung worm Size: 6.5cm Importance: Low (rare – in horses sharing grazing with donkeys only) Lifecycle similar to that of the cattle lungworm Difficult to diagnose but usually associated with donkeys grazing with horses Donkey is a symptomless carrier Causes coughing and poor condition in young horses Chronic resp. diseases in older horses Easily controlled From week 5 lecture

Answer 114

Cestodes .Flatworms .In the horses – tapeworms .Specifically Anoplocephala perfoliata From week 5 lecture

Answer 115

Anoplocephala perfoliata Taxonomy (tapeworm) Class: Cestoda Family: Anoplocephalidae Genus: Anoplocephala Species: perfoliata Common Name: Tapeworm Size: 40-80cm dep on segments Importance: Medium 3 main species affecting the horse -Anoplocephala perfoliata -Anoplocephala mamillana -Anoplocephala magna Two latter species are rare in managed horses All responsible for ileal and intussusception colics Clinical signs vary depending on severity of lesions From week 5 lecture

Answer 116

Anoplocephala perfoliata (tapeworm) .The most important tapeworm in the UK .Lives in the SI and Caecum - ICJ main attachment point .Only species with documented clinical impact .Adults up to 40-80cm in length by 1.2cm wide .Eggs irregularly spherical or triangular .Cannot be detected by FEC Intermediate host of orbatid mite Life cycle: mature segment are passed in the faeces, releasing eggs - Ingested by orbatid (forage) mites in which the develop the cysticeroid stage in 2-4 months Adult tapeworms are found in the intestine 1-2 months after the ingestion of infected mites Horses of all ages affected, but mainly reported in animals up to 3-4 years From week 5 lecture

Answer 117

Anoplocephala perfoliata (tapeworm) Lifecycle Adult tapeworms in equine intestine → mature segments passed in faeces → disintegrate to release eggs → eggs ingested by forage mites → develop into cysticercoids in 2-4 months in mites → infected mites ingested by horses → adult tapeworms develop over 6-10 weeks. Numbers of mature worms increase in autumn with egg-laying adults most common in winter through spring. A. perfoliata lives about 6 months. Habitat -Oribatid mites (intermediate hosts) on pasture harbour cysticercoids. -Maximum numbers of infected mites in late summer/autumn Prepatent period 6-10 weeks Transmission Faeco-oral via intermediate host (forage mite). From week 5 lecture

Answer 118

Gastrophilus spp. Taxonomy (bot fly) Phylum: Arthropoda Class: Insecta Family: Oestridae Genus: Gastophilus Species: intestinalis (for horses) Common Name: Bot fly Size: L3 ½ - ¾ inches Importance: Low - (non-pathogenic, nuisance) Obligate parasites of horses Robust dark flies, 10–15 mm in length The body is densely covered with yellowish hairs In female the ovipositor is strong and protuberant Wings have no characteristic cross-vein From week 5 lecture

Answer 119

Gastrophilus spp. (bot fly) Pathogenesis Bot flies lay batches of150-200 eggs around lips, legs The adult flies have a short lifespan and females can deposit all of their eggs within 2–3 hours if the weather is mild and a suitable host is available The eggs are easily seen; they are 1–2 mm long and usually white/ yellow in colour They either hatch spontaneously in about 5 days or are stimulated to do so by warmth, which may be generated during licking and self-grooming Larvae stay and develop in stomach for 10–12 months When mature in following spring or early summer, they detach and are passed in faeces The larvae reattach in the rectum for a few days before being passed out Pupation takes place on the ground, and after 1–2 months the adult flies emerge They do not feed, and live for only a few days or weeks, where they mate and lay eggs If suitable hosts are unavailable the flies move to high points to aggregate and mate, following which females initiate a longer-distance search for hosts There is therefore only one generation of flies per year in temperate areas From week 5 lecture

Answer 120

Gastrophilus – Bot Fly signs and treatment Cause irritation to the gut and colic unless treated Frost kills the bot fly so life cycle broken and no chance of re-infection until the next season Noticeable in the form of white/yellow eggs on the horse – typically on the legs or shoulder Removal using a bot knife From week 5 lecture

Answer 121

Gastrophilus (bot fly) Epidemiolgy and Transmission Lifecycle .Adults -Eggs laid on horse's hair. .Larvae: -1st, 2nd and 3rd stage. -Pupate on ground Transmission -Adult fly on wing in the summer months → lays eggs on individual horses. -L1-L3 spend 9 months in the horse. -Pupa lasts about 6 weeks on the ground From week 5 lecture

Answer 122

Equipment needed to set up an effective quarantine area .Treatment carts; .Painters’ disposable coveralls; .Disposable gloves; .Rubber boots; .Foot bath containers; .Garbage bags; .Garbage cans with secure lids; .Disposable plastic shoe covers; .Dedicated thermometer for each horse; .Dedicated equipment for each horse; and .Appropriate signage. Anyone entering the isolation barn should follow appropriate sanitation measures, including: .Wearing rubber boots dipped in a prescribed foot bath and/or disposable booties. .Using disposable or dedicated gowns or coveralls for each horse stall. .Changing disposable gloves between handling each horse. .Wearing a treatment coat over the reusable coveralls. .Showering or changing clothes before touching other horses if contaminated while treating an infected horse. .Washing hands for 60 seconds (or singing “Happy Birthday” twice at normal tempo) before entering or leaving the isolation area. Using disposable towels and depositing them in a covered waste container at the hand-washing site. .Setting up a perimeter around the stall area to limit entry and traffic. You can designate this perimeter with ropes, construction fencing, and so forth. Restrict random access to this area, and provide only one entry and exit. .Installing appropriate lighting for easier assessment and treatment. From https://thehorse.com/112775/how-to-set-up-a-disease-isolation-unit-on-your-farm/

Answer 123

Guidance on isolation Premises 1. The isolation facility should be a separate, enclosed building of sound, permanent construction, capable of being cleansed and disinfected effectively. 2. It must not be possible for other horses to approach within 100 metres of the isolation facility while it is in use. 3. An adequate supply of fresh, clean water must be available at all times for the isolated horses and for cleaning purposes. 4. Adequate supplies of food and bedding material for the whole of the isolation period must be made available and stored within the isolation facility before isolation commences. 5. Equipment and utensils used for feeding, grooming and cleansing must be used only in the isolation facility. 6. Protective clothing must be available at the entrance to the isolation facility and not be taken outside of this facility. 7. A separate muck heap should be used within the isolation facility. Procedures 1. Before use, all fixed and moveable equipment and utensils for feeding, grooming and cleansing within the isolation facility must be disinfected using an approved disinfectant. A list of these is provided on the Defra website (select only ‘General’ for suitable products). 2. Attendants of the isolated horses must have no contact with any other horses during the isolation period. 3. The isolation period for all isolated horses shall be deemed to start from the time of entry of the last horse. 4. No person may enter the isolation facility unless specifically authorised to do so. 5. When no attendants are on duty, the facility must be locked securely to prevent the entry of unauthorised persons. If such strict measures are not possible in practice, the owner/manager of the premises where isolation is needed should devise their own isolation programme and procedures in conjunction with the attending veterinary surgeon and if appropriate with additional input from a recognised expert in equine infectious disease control. From https://codes.hblb.org.uk/index.php/page/130

Answer 124

Pre-Purchase Exams: The five stages consist of:  Stage 1: Clinical examination of the horse at rest. This is includes a thorough palpation of all the limbs, listening to the heart and lungs and an examination of the horse’s eyes in a dark stable with an ophthalmoscope.  Stage 2: Observation of the horse walking and trotting in hand in a straight line on a hard, level surface, including flexion tests. The horse is normally also trotted on a small diameter circle on a firm surface to detect subtle lameness issues.  Stage 3: Observation of the horse performing strenuous exercise, normally under saddle. This allows further evaluation of the way the horse moves and assessment of the heart and respiratory systems’ response to exertion.  Stage 4: A period of rest in the stable to give time for any stiffness induced by the exercise to become apparent. The horse’s markings are normally recorded at this time and the passport examined.  Stage 5: A second examination of the horse at trot in hand. This is primarily to check that the strenuous exercise has not exacerbated a subtle underlying lameness problem. Flexion tests or trotting on a small diameter circle are sometimes repeated at this time. A blood sample will be taken which is stored for six months and can be used, if concerns arise after purchase, to test for substances that may have masked certain conditions. From https://moodle.writtle.ac.uk/pluginfile.php/1190965/mod_resource/content/0/Pre-Purchase%20Examinations.pdf

Answer 125

What does a lameness ‘work-up’ entail?  We will allocate a vet to look at your horse/pony. He/she will take some history from you regarding your horse/pony’s background, such as: o What your horse/pony is used for o How he/she is managed o Shoeing etc  They will also ask questions about the nature of the current lameness: o Duration o Severity o Previous treatment o Response to rest/treatment etc  We will then perform an initial lameness examination; this may include: o Walk and trot in a straight line o Flexion tests o Lunging on both firm and soft surface o Palpation of the limbs/back/neck o Possibly a ridden examination, dependent on the history and nature of the problem  If, following this examination, there is something that suggests a cause of the lameness we may elect to perform the relevant diagnostic imaging procedure straight away o X-rays and/or ultrasound examination  If there is no obvious cause of lameness, then we commonly embark on performing a series of ‘nerve blocks’: o We will place small volumes of local anaesthetic, using small needles, in specific places on the leg to numb the nerve supply to a specific area. o If your horse/pony is sound after this nerve block then we know that the cause of lameness is coming from somewhere within the numbed region. o If your horse/pony remains lame then we will perform the next nerve block up the leg, as we generally start at the bottom of the leg and work our way up. From https://moodle.writtle.ac.uk/pluginfile.php/1190966/mod_resource/content/0/Lameness_work-up_info_sheet.pdf

Answer 126

Equine de-worming: a consensus on current best practice .Despite increasing awareness within the veterinary profession and equine industry of the potential implications of anthelmintic resistance (AHR), there is a concern that insufficient measures are being taken to reduce its development and spread. This document was commissioned to provide veterinary surgeons with up to date information on worm control plans that will prevent clinical disease while minimising selection pressure for resistance. From https://www.magonlinelibrary.com/doi/abs/10.12968/ukve.2019.3.S.3?journalCode=ukve

Answer 127

Worm testing in autumn .Testing for tapeworm prior to the annual treatment for encysted redworm in late autumn/winter is an easy win. This will help to decide whether a moxidectin only (or where there is no resistance known, a 5-day fenbendazole) treatment is required or if a moxidectin + praziquantel combination wormer is advised to include treatment for tapeworm at the same time. .At other times of year where it has been confirmed that treatment for tapeworm is needed, a worm egg count should be conducted. If treatment for redworm is indicated at the same time, then an ivermectin + praziquantel combination wormer should be the first choice. .Alternatively, a double dose of pyrantel can be recommended for administration if; - the treatment is for tapeworm only or ascarids are also present (more likely in foals or yearlings) or the redworm population in question is known to not be resistant to pyrantel. .As a note of caution, in studies conducted by at Moredun Research Institute, small redworm resistance to pyrantel was found on up to 50% of yards, depending on the group of establishments tested. From http://equisal.co.uk/Worming-advice-after-discontinuation-of-Equitape

Answer 128

FEC .Fecal egg counts (FEC) will help you check the efficacy of your dewormers, determine which of your adult horses shed the most strongyle eggs, and monitor ascarid presence in foals and yearlings. .To conduct an FEC, collect a fresh manure sample from each horse to be tested. About three “nuggets” of manure will suffice. Label, date, and refrigerate the samples. Ideally, have them tested by a veterinarian or an animal health laboratory within 24 hours and no later than seven days after collection. Seek advice from your veterinarian about collecting samples and where to send them. .The FEC results enable you to categorize adult horses as low (0-200 eggs per gram [EPG]), medium (200-500 EPG), or heavy (>500 EPG) strongyle shedders. .By identifying the horses that shed the most strongyle eggs in their feces and treating them with effective dewormers, you can effectively reduce strongyle egg-shedding in your pasture. From https://thehorse.com/169288/risk-and-reality-horse-parasite-control-and-anthelmintic-resistance/?utm_medium=Health+enews&utm_source=Newsletter

Answer 129

Fecals Don’t Show Everything .Fecal egg counts do not distinguish large strongyle (the most dangerous but least common parasite in horses) eggs from small strongyle eggs. Equine parasitologists recognize this as one of the limitations of FECs. Other constraints the American Association of Equine Practitioners (AAEP) lists include: .They do not accurately reflect the horse’s total adult strongyle or ascarid burden; a higher egg count just means more eggs, not necessarily more worms; .They do not detect immature or larval stages of parasites, including migrating large strongyles and ascarids, and/or encysted cyathostomins (small strongyles embedded as cysts in the large intestine wall); .Standard fecal techniques often underestimate tapeworm infections, so a modified FEC, as well as serum and saliva tests, exist for detecting these parasites; and They usually miss pinworm eggs, which adhere in packets around the anus rather than shedding in feces. From https://thehorse.com/169288/risk-and-reality-horse-parasite-control-and-anthelmintic-resistance/?utm_medium=Health+enews&utm_source=Newsletter

Answer 130

READ Rendal 2019 worm resistance

Answer 131

Why control parasites? Damage to the intestines Pass infection on to other horses Colic (spasmodic, impaction, infarction, intusseption) Main method of control: Anthelmintics Management

Answer 132

Role of an SQP (suitably qualified person) POM-V: Prescription only medicine (Vet only) POM-VPS: Prescription only medicine (Vet, Pharmacist or SQP) NFA-VPS: Non-food producing animal (Vet Pharmacist or SQP) AVM-GSL: Authorised Vet. Medicine General Sales List

Answer 133

Anthelmintics Have a broad spectrum of activity .Showing acceptable efficacy against four target parasites (small/large stongyles, Parascaris, Oxyuris) Be efficient against all parasitic stages of a particular spp. Be non-toxic to the host Be rapidly cleared and excreted by the host Have an easy administration Be reasonably priced https://www.noahcompendium.co.uk/ - to look up drug info

Answer 134

Wormers in uk .Benzimidazole - panacur .Moxidectin - equest - resistance and no other option for redworm. .Ivermectin - eqvalan .Pyrantel - strongid-p - double dose treats tapeworm .Praziquantel - for tapeworm and at vet only Combination wormers .Equimax - ivermectin and praziquantel .Equest pramox - moxidectin and praziquantel

Answer 135

Wormer Dose rate If the dose is sub-optimal to that recommended on data sheets: .Selection of resistant strains will be increased .Therefore animal must be weighed (scales or weigh tape) .Calibration of WE equipment should be carried out regularly DO NOT UNDERDOSE Over dosing safer

Answer 136

Worm control .Gastro-intestinal nematodes of the horse controlled by dosing every 6-13 weeks depending on the drug used .Different wormers have different length of action .Spring – Autumn is the high risk period .Nemotodes - okay in winter .Bot fly - not okay in winter .Winter dosing only required every 3 months (depending on weather patterns) .If larval cyathostomiasis is a problem then treatment is important at the beginning of the winter period

Answer 137

Benzimadazoles .Introduced to market in 1960s – revolutionised industry .Expected FECR >90% - egg reappearance : 6-8 weeks (Rendle et al., (2019) .Efficacy not considered effective unless FECRT undertaken – resistance ubiquitous .BZD - large chemical family use to treat nematode infection in domestic animals .Categorised by broad spectrum of activity .For young or older horses normally as less aggressive Mode of activity .Disrupt energy metabolism at a chemical level -Bind to protein tubelin and block polymerisation into microtubules -Microtubules essential structural components of cellular structure – essential to energy metabolisation .BZDs only marketed anthelmintic class that has anti-metabolic mode of activity .Nematodes have limited energy storage organs so must consume continually - BZDs make the nematode effectively starve

Answer 138

Fenbendazole .Used for foals up to 6 months .FBZ firstly broad spectrum, equine anthelmintic -Given at an elevated dosage of 10mg/KG shows high efficacy against migrating ascarid and large strongyle larvae -Also effective against encysted cyathostomins .Kaplan et al., (2004) found 95% of farms had indigenous populations of BZD resistant cyathostomins .Resistance in these parasites taken as a rule rather than exception on managed horses

Answer 139

Pyrantel embonate Cause rapid, spastic paralysis of nematodes Paralysed worms unable to conduct co-ordinated feeding and would starve if not excreted via intestinal peristalsis Not registered for 4L (immature worms) cyathostomes as have shown to survive treatment (Reinemeyer, 2003) No activity again encysted cyathostomes, migrating strongyles Non-ovicidal - doesn't kill the worms 6 week dosing Broad spectrum with efficacy against large redworm @ 6.6mg/kg -Variable against S. edentatus, Oxyuris and cyathostomes Some resistance noted, not as widespread as BZD -Including adult cyathostomes (Craven et al., (1998) Also effective for A. perfoliata @ double dose rate of 13.2mg/kg – 95%

Answer 140

Macrocylic lactones .less resistance Two distinct families: Both kill internal and external e.g. lice and worms -Avermectins: Ivermectin - doesn't kill encysted stage -Milbemycin: Moxidectin - does kill encysted stage .Mac lacs interfere with glutamate gated (GluCl) channels resulting in flaccid paralysis of the parasites -Arrested larvae cannot feed and are expelled with intestinal peristalsis .Migrating stages are killed by a cellular immune response .Both endoctocides -killing both ecto & endoparasites (both nematodes and insects). .Onset of activity is rapid -Typically occurring during 48hrs of treatment -Ideally keep inside for 48 hours after treatment .Kill all luminal stages of dvt .Effective against migratory stages (S. vulgaris, Parasacris and Strongyloides) .Efficacy against Gasterophilus spp. attached to stomach and duodenum -Ivermectin also licensed for oral stages .Also effective against Habronema and Draschia

Answer 141

Ivermectin .Ivermectin came onto market in 1980s -Broad in action and comprises both antibiotic and antiparasitic modes -Mac. Lacs. revolutionised parasite control in horses -low does rate -low toxicity level -8 week activity -No resistance reported in first 20 years on the market – now more widespread - esp. in relation to Cyathostomes and Ascarids in all recent studies

Answer 142

Moxidectin/ equest .More lipophilic (fat soluble) than ivermectin - don't treat under 6 months as not much fat on foal .Metabolised in fat stores of the horse and released gradually over 13 weeks -Careful with underweight horses .No efficacy against tapeworm .Resistance now a growing concern

Answer 143

vermectin / Moxidectin share similar properties Main differences: Moxidectin -is effective against encysted cyathostomes -Efficacy ranging between 60-80% dep. on study -Licensed for larvicidal treatment -Supresses strongyle counts for 12-16 weeks post-treatment (Jacobs et al., 2015) (hence 13 week dosing schedule) -Longest ERP (egg reappearance period) of any drug, c. 1.5x ivermectin

Answer 144

redworm .90% of all small redworm found in the horse will be encysted larvae. .Equest only one to treat all stages of small redworm in one dose. .Lower toxicity to dung dwelling insects than ivermectin based wormers. e.g. fly eating dung and getting wormer

Answer 145

Praziquantel .Very effective anthelmintic .No known resistance on efficacy in A. perfoliata .Licenced for decades in companion animal medicine More recently for horses Mode of action -Damages larval tegument (outer body covering) causing cell membrane permeability -Results in spastic paralysis

Answer 146

Combination wormers .Both moxidectin and ivermectin can be combined with praziquantel in the form of a combi wormer Wormers .Equest pramox .Equimax

Answer 147

Administration of medicines Syringe -Dosing syringe -Cleaned wormers .Mix powders with water to form paste .Place in corner of mouth over tongue .Raise muzzle .Lips closed In Feed .Powder mixed in with dampened hard feed .Soaked sugar beet or molasses -Binds powder -Masks taste .Some horses will not eat powders => .Alternative dosing method

Answer 148

What is Parasitic Resistance .Anthelmintic Resistance is the term given to parasites evolved to be no longer affected by the chosen worming treatment -Similar seen in antibiotic treatment -Lack of modern options -Egg reappearance times reduce .Slowing resistance 2-fold: 1. Protection of Key Medicines 2. Reducing worm challenges in the environment (Management)

Answer 149

SMART Worming Programmes S imply M onitor & A ssess the R isk & T reat appropriately

Answer 150

10 Management Tips for Preventing Resistance 1) Protect Key Medicines: Utilise monitoring (FEC / Equisal). Resistance stems from exposure to meds. 2) Avoid underdosing Exposing worms to not enough chemical will increase resistance. Use WB. All UK wormers have safe upper tolerance levels 3)Don’t worm and move After worming, don’t change horse to new pasture. Stable for 48 hours after treatment 4)Maintain grazing companions This will stop your horse ingesting parasites that may have been exposed to chemical and developed resistance 5) Poo Pick Shed larvae hatch within 7 days and can migrate in pasture. Harrowing only effective over 40◦C – UK? 6) Muck Heap Placement Worms will travel up to 1m in dry conditions. Correct placement can aid prevention of re-infestation 7)Cross Grazing Utilising other animals (e.g. sheep) can help reduce worm burden in grazing. Helminths usually species specific (except some tapeworms, lungworm and liver flukes) 8) Isolate new horses Keep new horses separate until FEC / Equi-Sal monitoring shows clear from parasite burden 9) Careful grazing away from home Consider preserved forage instead. Competition venues have high risk of parasite burden. Horses stabled with travelling companions at ^ risk of developing infestations 10) Good Stable Management is Key Keeps stables and shelters clear from faeces. Regularly empty and clean troughs and buckets to prevent re-ingestion

Answer 151

Identity of resistant worms .Commercial resistance testing now available (c. £8) in form of FERT .Ability to see if recently given treatment has been effective -Especially important if using a Fenbendazole based wormer (Panacur Equine Guard) as high reported resistance .FEC taken to assess parasite burden in the horse -Treatment given if necessary -10-14 days later another faecal sample taken and analysed

Answer 152

Identity of resistant worms .If result not reduced by 85-95% then resistance is noted - If identified, speak to vet or SQP for alternative treatment strategies. .E.g. medium worm egg count between 200-1150e.p.g. should reduce to < 50 e.p.g. .A high worm egg count of 1200 e.p.g. should reduce to < 100 e.p.g. on a follow up test .Widespread resistance noted with Fenbendazole and Pyrantel Embonate .Some resistance noted with Ivermectin based products .Some new resistance noted with Moxidectin on parascaris equorum and cyathostomins .No known resistance to Praziquantel