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EOY 10 Exams Flashcards

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1
Q

What is the function of the mouth in the alimentary canal?

A
  • salivary glands produce amylase, which breaks down starch and lubricates food
  • performs mechanical digestion
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2
Q

What is the function of the oesophagus in the alimentary canal?

A
  • transports food from mouth to stomach by peristalsis*
    (the oesophagus has two layers; circular muscle layer and longitudinal muscle layer)

*the constriction and relaxation of the muscles of the oesophagus, pushing the contents of the canal forward.

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3
Q

What is the function of the stomach in the alimentary canal?

A
  • Contains HCL for the chemical breakdown of food
  • To kill bacteria
  • Provide an optimum pH for enzyme activity
  • Churns food into chyme*
  • the acidic fluid which consists of gastric juices and partly digested food.
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4
Q

What is the function of the small intestine in the alimentary canal?

A
  • the duodenum* breaks down foods using enzymes and adds bile
  • the ileum** absorbs nutrients into the bloodstream
  • the first part of the small intestine immediately beyond the stomach
    • the third portion of the small intestine
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5
Q

What is the function of the large intestine in the alimentary canal?

A
  • the colon* absorbs water from waste products into the bloodstream
  • the rectum** stores food, which is later removed through the anal sphincter***
  • part of the large intestine, the final part of the digestive system
    • the final section of the large intestine, stopping at the anus.
  • ** a group of muscles at the end of the rectum that surrounds the anus and controls the release of stool
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6
Q

What is the function of the pancreas in the alimentary canal?

A
  • contains exocrine glands that produce enzymes
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7
Q

How does peristalsis work?

A
  • When the circular muscles contract and the longitudinal muscles relax the gut is made narrower
  • When the longitudinal muscles relax and the circular muscles contract the gut is made wider
  • Waves of contraction pass along, pushing the food down; circular waves push behind the bolus, longitudinal waves push down the bolus

NOTE: movement of food down the oesophagus does not depend on gravity

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8
Q

What is bile?

A
  • green liquid stored in the gall bladder
  • passed down the bile duct
  • doesn’t contain enzymes
  • is alkaline (as to neutralize acidic contents of the stomach)
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9
Q

How does bile neutralize stomach acid?

A
  • The mixture of semi-digested food and enzymes from the stomach is acidic, and bile is alkali
  • Neutralizes the contents so that it is safe for the rest of the organs to absorb/come into contact with
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10
Q

How does bile emulsify lipids?

A
  • Bile turns any large lipid globules into an emulsion of tiny droplets
  • Increases the surface area of the lipid so lipases can break it down easier

*Emulsification = to break up into smaller parts

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11
Q

What are the different digestive enzymes and their roles?

A

CARBOHYDRASE

  • Amylase produced in the salivary gland works in the mouth and turns starch into maltose
  • Amylase produced in the pancreas works in the small intestine and turns starch into maltose
  • Maltase produced in the wall of the small intestine works in the small intestine and turns maltose into glucose

PROTEASE

  • Pepsin produced in the stomach wall works in the stomach and turns proteins into peptides
  • Trypsin produced in the small intestine works in the pancreas and turns proteins into peptides
  • Peptidase produced in the wall of the small intestine works in the small intestine and turns peptides into amino acids

LIPASE
- Lipase produced in the pancreas works in the small intestine and turns lipids into glycerol and fatty acids

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12
Q

What are the different layers of the villi?

A

(from the outside inward)

  • Microvilli
  • Epithelial cells
  • Capillary
  • Lacteal

NOTE: the blood diffusing through comes from the mesentery artery and is transferred to the hepatic portal vein

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13
Q

What is assimilation?

A

Soluble food molecules absorbed from the blood into the cells of tissues and used to build new parts of cells

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14
Q

How is the small intestine adapted for absorption?

A

LARGE SURFACE AREA

  • length of intestine
  • folds into its lining
  • tiny projections in the lining called villi
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15
Q

What is the function of the capillary in the villi?

A
  • transports amino acids and glucose
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16
Q

What is the function of the lacteal in the villi?

A
  • transports fatty acids and glycerol
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17
Q

How do villi work?

A
  • Increase surface area and the microvilli increase it further
  • All the nutrients pass through the epithelial layer and into the lacteal and capillaries to be transported around the body
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18
Q

Describe the practical; enzymes affected by temperature changes

A
  • spots of iodine put on a dimple tray
  • amylase solution and the starch solution heated up then mixed together
  • add a drop to iodine solution and record color every 30s for 10 minutes
  • repeat with different temperatures
  • could see when the starch solution had been broken down by color change
  • the time this took was the rate of reaction
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19
Q

Define optimum

A
  • the best temperature at which the reaction takes place the fastest
  • rate of reaction can be increased by raising the concentration of enzyme or substrate
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20
Q

What temperature do enzymes in the body work at?

A

37 degrees Celcius

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21
Q

How does temperature affect enzymes?

A
  • As the enzyme is heated up to its optimum temperature, the rate of reaction increases; this is because of higher temperatures give molecules of enzymes and substrates more kinetic energy so they collide more often
  • As the temperature begins to increase above the optimum the rate of reaction begins to decrease; this is because enzymes are made of protein and protein is broken down by heat above 40 degrees Celsius

^^ The destroying of an enzyme is called denaturing; when the shape of the active site of an enzyme changes so that the substrate can no longer fit into it
- This is permanent; enzymes can no longer catalyze

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22
Q

Improve the practical; enzymes affected by temperature changes

A
  • recording the color changes at shorter intervals
  • use a water bath; presents temperature from dropping as the experiment goes on
  • measure the temp of the solution rather than just the water
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23
Q

How to calculate energy (in joules) per gram

A

change in temperature x volume of water x 4.2 / mass of food

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24
Q

Describe the practical; the energy content in a food sample

A
  • mass of food sample
  • a measured volume of water in a boiling tube
  • temperature of water recorded
  • food spread on the end of mounted needle
  • held in bunsen burner until it catches fire
  • hold burning food underneath the boiling tube
  • when food will no longer burn measure the temperature
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25
Q

How does a calorimeter work?

A
  • it is filled with oxygen, so food burns easily
  • it is lighted/heated by a heating filament carrying an electric current; does not give any extra heat as a bunsen burner does
  • stirrer to equalize heat in the water
  • in a sealed container; reduces heat loss by wind
  • electrical wire; don’t have to transfer from bunsen burner so no loss of heat
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26
Q

pH’s of the mouth, stomach, and small intestine

A

mouth - 7
small intestine - 8
stomach - 2.5/3

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27
Q

Describe the practical; enzymes affected by pH changes

A
  • potato mixed in blender; to release catalase from cells
  • mix of potato extract, buffer solution, and catalase
  • hydrogen peroxide solution added and bung and delivery tube inserted
  • bubbles of O2 produced in the first minute are counted
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28
Q

Improve the practical; enzymes affected by pH changes

A
  • use a gas syringe instead of counting bubbles
  • repeat using the same buffer
  • control the temperature by using a water bath
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29
Q

What are the three things required for diffusion?

A
  • steep concentration gradient
  • short diffusion pathway
  • moisture
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30
Q

What adaptations do alveoli have for gas exchange?

A
  • spherical shape; increased surface area
  • large quantities and very tiny; increased surface area
  • thin walls (1 cell thick); short diffusion pathway
  • moist surface; goof for diffusion as gasses can dissolve
  • good blood supply from capillaries surrounding; maintains concentration gradient by removing O2 and bringing lots of CO2
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31
Q

How many membranes does oxygen have to pass through in the alveoli?

A

5

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32
Q

Describe the process of gas exchange in the alveoli

A
  • deoxygenated blood from respiring tissues is pumped from the heart to the lungs
  • oxygen diffuses into the capillary - combines with haemoglobin in red blood cells - producing oxyhaemoglobin
  • carbon dioxide diffuses into the aleolus
  • blood that leaves capillaries lost CO2 and gained 02; it now is oxygenated
  • heart pumps it back around body to respiring cells
33
Q

How is ATP made?

A
  • oxygen oxidizes food and produces CO2 + H2O as waste products
  • energy from this reaction used to add a phosphate to ADP (Adenosine diphosphate) to make ATP (Adenosine triphosphate)
34
Q

What is the energy in ATP used for?

A
  • contractions of muscle cells (movement)
  • active transport of molecules and ions
  • building large molecules (e.g. protein)
  • cell division
35
Q

What is cellular respiration?

A

the breakdown of glucose and other respiratory substances to make energy molecules called ATP

36
Q

What is diffusion?

A
  • the net movement of particles from a region of high concentration to a region of low concentration
37
Q

What is osmosis?

A
  • the net movement of water from a dilute solution to a more concentrated solution across a semi-permeable cell membrane
38
Q

What is active transport?

A
  • The movement of substances against a concentration gradient using the energy produced in respiration
  • e.g. glucose absorbed by cells lining the intestine; used in cells to control the uptake of substances
39
Q

Why does diffusion occur?

A
  • because of the kinetic energy of the particles
  • does not require any extra energy
  • occurs in cells during gas exchange
40
Q

When does osmosis occur?

A
  • when total concentration of dissolved substances inside and outside of the cell are different
  • how ‘free’ water molecules move is called “water potential”
41
Q

What effects does nicotine have on the body?

A
  • increased bowel activity, saliva, and bronchial secretions
  • tremors and convulsions; stimulates the nervous system
  • sweating
  • nausea
  • diarrhea
42
Q

What are some health risks of taking in nicotine?

A
  • blood cloths
  • high blood pressure
  • delayed wound healing
  • issues with pregnancy
43
Q

What are the risks of second-hand smoke?

A

IN ADULTS

  • sudden/severe reactions
  • coronary artery disease
  • lung cancer

IN CHILDREN

  • asthma
  • infections
  • poor lung function
  • SIDS
44
Q

Link smoking to lung cancer

A
  • smoke contains over 700 chemicals; 60 have been known to cause cancer
    ^ these chemicals are called carcinogens

NOTE: cancer happens when cells mutate uncontrollably, forming a tumor

45
Q

Describe chronic bronchitis

A
  • tar and chemicals paralyze the cilia - can’t get rid of bacteria
  • more chest infections + mucus remains + blocks air passage
  • smoke irritates the lining - stimulate cells to secrete more mucus
  • mucus blocking airway causes smokers cough
  • irritation of bronchial tree and bacteria causes bronchitis
46
Q

Describe emphysema

A
  • smoke damages alveoli walls; they break down and fuse together
  • this forms large, irregular air spaces and alveoli become flattened
  • reduces the area for gas exchange; their blood carries less oxygen so people are often left out of breath
  • mucus/fluid could also fill alveoli which reduces gas exchange
47
Q

Describe coronary heart disease (CHD)

A
  • fatty deposits in the walls of coronary arteries cut off the blood supply to the heart and can cause heart attacks
  • CO2 from smoke interferes with 02 ability to bind with haemoglobin - it binds with CO2 instead and produces carboxyhaemoglobin
  • The heart has to beat faster with a higher pressure; damage to artery walls make clots more likely
  • Nicotine also makes blood cells more sticky and narrows blood vessels (vasoconstriction)
48
Q

Describe the practical; release of CO2 in humans

A
  • used to compare the volume of CO2 in inhaled and exhaled air
  • limewater in the exhale tube will turn cloudy before the limewater in the inhale tube because we exhale more CO2 than we inhale
49
Q

Describe the practical; effect of exercise on breathing in humans

A
  • sit for 5m and measure breathing rate (resting rate)
  • do exercise
  • immediately after, sit down and measure breathing rate again
  • continue to record until you reach your resting rate
  • breathing rate increases because muscles need more energy to move; need more O2 to respire; need to breathe more frequently
50
Q

What are the characteristics of living organisms?

A
  • movement; move to get food and away from danger
  • respiration; releasing energy taken in from glucose
  • sensitivity; responding to stimuli
  • growth; to increase in size
  • reproduction; to make more of the species
  • excretion; to remove bodily waste
  • nutrition; to take in nutrients that are necessary
  • homeostasis; controlling your internal environment
51
Q

What is a eukaryotic organism?

A

Organisms whose cells have a nucleus enclosed within membranes

52
Q

Describe four eukaryotic organisms

A

PLANTS

  • multicellular
  • the cell wall is made of cellulose
  • have chloroplasts to carry out photosynthesis
  • carbs stored as starch or sucrose
  • e.g. herbaceous legume (peas or beans)

ANIMAL

  • multicellular
  • no cell wall
  • have nervous coordination; can move
  • carbs stored as glycogen
  • e.g. mammals (humans)

FUNGI

  • organized into a mycelium made from hyphae
  • single-celled
  • cell walls made of chitin
  • extracellular secretion of enzymes onto food and absorption via the saprotrophic process
  • carbs stored as glycogen
  • e.g. (as a hyphal structure) Mucor, (single-celled) Yeast

PROTOCTISTS

  • microscopic
  • single-celled
  • some have a cell wall, some don’t
  • some live in pond water, have animal features; others are like plants with chloroplasts
  • carbs are stored as glycogen or starch/sucrose
  • e.g. (animal-like) amoeba, (plant-like) chlorella, (pathogen) Plasmodium; causes malaria
53
Q

What is a prokaryotic organism?

A

A unicellular organism that has no membrane-bound organelles

54
Q

Describe a prokaryotic organism?

A

BACTERIA

  • microscopic
  • single-celled
  • have a cell wall, cell membrane, cytoplasm, plasmids
  • have no nucleus, but have a circular chromosome of DNA or RNA
  • some carry out photosynthesis but most feed off other living or dead organisms
  • e.g. lactobacillus bulgarius (used to make yogurt), pneumococcus (pathogen causing pneumonia)
55
Q

What is a pathogen?

A

A micro-organism that can cause disease

56
Q

Describe an example of a pathogen

A

vIRUS

  • a not ling organism
  • smaller than bacteria
  • parasitic; can only reproduce inside living cells
  • have a wide variety of shapes and sizes; no cellular structure
  • e.g. tobacco mosaic virus (causes discoloring of tobacco leaves; prevents the formation of chloroplast), influenza virus (causes the flu), hiv virus (causes AIDS)
57
Q

What is a parasite

A
  • lives off of other organisms without giving the host any benefits
58
Q

Describe a virus cell

A
  • much smaller than bacteria cells- are NOT made of cells; no nucleus, cell wall, cytoplasm, etc.
  • composed of a core of genetic material surrounded by a protein coat
  • are parasitic; can only reproduce inside living cells
  • the border between an organism and a non-living chemical
  • the only trait of MRS GREN they have is reproduction -which they do parasitically
  • reproduces by entering the host cell, taking over genetic material to make more virus particles
  • after many are made, host cell dies and particles released to infect other cells
  • taken into a cell, inject genetic material, make copies > produce a lot of protein, host cell bursts and dies
  • contains an envelope, protein coat, and DNA/RNA
59
Q

Describe a bacteria cell

A
  • cell wall made of peptidoglycan
  • has no nucleus; stores genetic material in a single chromosome
  • some bacteria contain chlorophyll
  • bacteria need protein for things like repairing damage and directing chemical processes
  • many bacteria are decomposers; recycling dead organisms and waste products
  • some can move and respond to a large range of stimuli
  • includes a cell wall, cytoplasm, plasma membrane, DNA, pili, ribosomes, flagellum, a plasmid, and a capsule
60
Q

What is an autotroph versus a heterotroph

A

HETEROTROPH

  • cannot make their own food
  • consume nutrients from other organisms
  • conduct external digestion (saprotrophic process)
  • reproduce sexually and asexually
  • can be used to fight bacterial diseases (NOT viruses)

AUTOTROPH
- Can make their own food using light, water, carbon dioxide or other chemicals

61
Q

What does hypertonic mean?

A
  • the concentration of solutes is greater/ water potential is less outside the cell
  • the cell is flaccid; cell loses water, decreases in volume and cytoplasm no longer pushes against the cell wall
62
Q

What does isotonic mean?

A
  • solutions on the inside and outside have similar/the same concentration
63
Q

What does hypotonic mean?

A
  • the concentration of solutes is greater/ water potential is less inside the cell
  • the cell is turgid; cell absorbs water, swells up, develops internal pressure, cytoplasm pushes against the cell wall
64
Q

What is aerobic respiration?

A
  • requires oxygen
  • occurs in mitochondria
  • glucose is completely broken down
  • produces CO2 and H2O
  • produces 19x more energy
65
Q

What is anaerobic respiration?

A
  • does not require oxygen
  • occurs in the cytoplasm
  • glucose not completely broken down
  • muscle yells; lactic acid produced
  • plants; ethanol and CO2 produced
  • produces less energy
66
Q

What is the word and balanced chemical equation for aerobic respiration?

A
  1. glucose + oxygen –> carbon dioxide + water + energy

2. C6H12O6 + 602 –> 6CO2 + 6H2O + ATP

67
Q

What is the word and balanced chemical equation for anaerobic respiration in plants?

A
  1. glucose –> ethanol + carbon dioxide + little energy

2. C6H12O6 –> 2C2H5OH + 2CO2 + ATP

68
Q

What is the word and balanced chemical equation for anaerobic respiration in muscles?

A
  1. glucose –> lactic acid + energy

2. C6H12O6 –> 2C3H6O3 + ATP

69
Q

Why does anaerobic respiration occur in muscle cells?

A
  • when muscles are overworked; blood can’t reach them fast enough to deliver 02
  • only provides enough energy to keep the overworked muscle going for a short period
  • lactate levels rise in the muscles and bloodstream; you get tired
  • the oxygen that builds up in the body needed to oxidize lactate during anaerobic respiration is called oxygen debt
70
Q

What are the three main types of stem cells?

A
  • EMBRYONIC STEM CELL; come from embryos 3-5 days old. harvested during a process called in vitro fertilization and can differentiate into any cell type
  • ADULT STEM CELL; found in developed adult tissues (e.g. bone marrow, skin, intestine lining) and cannot differentiate into different cell types but may form specialized tissue.
  • CORD BLOOD; harvested from the umbilical after birth and stores for future use.
71
Q

What are the advantages of using stem cells?

A
  • help scientists to learn about growth and development
  • used to research how diseases occur and how to treat them
  • new cells can be grown to use as transplants for damaged limbs and organs
  • able to test potential medicines without testing on animals/humans
72
Q

What are the disadvantages of using stem cells?

A
  • long term effects are unknown
  • embryonic stem cells may not be the solution for diseases
  • stem cells are derived from a separate body than the patient, so the patient’s body could reject them
  • lab-fertilized eggs are considered human life, so some find this immoral
73
Q

How do energy requirements vary with activity levels, age, and pregnancy?

A
  • a person who has quite a high energy level and works all day will need more energy than a person with a sedentary lifestyle
  • young people need to eat more/have more energy has their bodies are growing
  • loss of blood through menstruation in young woman can cause anemia; producing a need for iron
    pregnant women will need a higher energy intake, as they are eating for two people - they also need more iron and calcium for the growth of their baby
74
Q

Describe the vitamins and minerals found in the body

A

VITAMIN A

  • sourced in fish liver oils, butter, margarine, and carrots
  • makes a chemical in the retina that protects the surface of the eye
  • deficiency causes night blindness, damaged cornea

VITAMIN C

  • sourced in fresh fruit and vegetables
  • sticks together cells lining surfaces e.g. mouth
  • deficiency causes scurvy (unhealing wounds, bleeding gums)

VITAMIN D

  • sourced in fish liver oils, added to dairy products, made in the skin in sunlight
  • helps bones absorb calcium and phosphate
  • deficiency causes rickets, poor teeth

CALCIUM

  • sourced in dairy products, fish, bread, vegetables
  • makes teeth and bones, makes muscles contract, synaptic transmission in nerves
  • deficiency causes weak/poor bones and teeth

IRON

  • sourced in meat, liver, eggs, dark leafy greens
  • part of haemoglobin in red blood cells; helps carry oxygen
  • deficiency causes anemia (not enough 02 going around the body)
75
Q

What factors affect the rate of osmosis/diffusion?

A
  • concentration gradient; steep increases rate
  • surface area; larger increases rate
  • diffusion pathway; shorter increases rate
  • temperature; higher increases rate
76
Q

What factors affect active transport?

A
  • o2 concentration; higher increases rate
  • glucose concentration; higher increases rate
  • temperature; optimum for enzymes increases the rate
  • speed of protein carriers; high increases rate
77
Q

Describe the practical: diffusion and osmosis in agar jelly

A
  • cubes of different sizes are dropped into beakers od dilute HCL
  • time for each cube to turn colorless is recorded
  • the smallest cube turns colorless first; has the largest surface area to volume ratio
78
Q

Describe the practical: diffusion and osmosis in onion epidermis cells

A
  • a drop of sucrose solution and are of distilled water and are put on two slides
  • a small square of the inner epidermis is put on each slide
  • done quickly so that the cells do not dry out
  • the slides are examined for some time; cells in the water go turgid
79
Q

Describe the practical: diffusion and osmosis in potatoes

A
  • pieces are put in distilled water, sucrose solution, and nothing
  • distilled water increases mass, sucrose solution decreases mass,

Biology (7 decks)

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