Environment Flashcards
List the environmental policy development cycle
*Problem formulation/reformulation,
* Agenda setting
* Policy establishment
* Policy implementation
* Assessment policy
Policy Establishment
-Policy establishment involves assessing risks, collaborating with relevant groups, and selecting options by integrating risk assessment results with other key considerations in decision-making.
– Qualitative and/or quantitative process aimed at
determining the probability that exposure to one
or more environmental stressors produce
adverse effects on human health
explain the steps of risk assesment
- The identification of the hazard is to recognize an
environmental factor that may pose a risk to public
health (routes of exposure, effects, at-risk
populations). - Characterizing danger: primarily used to
determine the doses of contaminants (chemical,
biological, or physical) for adverse effects on Ia
health human.
3)Estimating the exposure to calculate the doses
to which people are exposed due to
contamination in various environments and
taking into account the different routes of
entry into the body. - The risk estimation allows the estimation of
the level of risk on human hea
Name the Main and fixed sources of pollution
Main: Transport, Industry
Fixed:factories, residences
Smog
chemical pollution observed mostly in
urban areas, under some conditions
Where does ozone come from
comes from the reaction of nitrogen oxides (NOₓ), volatile organic compounds (VOCs)
and other pollutants under the effect UV
What are the different forms of pollutants
-Particles : PM10 and PM2.5 and ultrafine particles
(UFPs)
-Gas : O3, NOx, SO2, CO, VOC,
-Vapours
what should PMs be and what do they stand for
Particulate matter
- PM10 (PM <10 microns)
-PM2.5 (PM <2.5 microns)
-UFP (PM <0.1 microns)
nitrogen oxide
High-combustion emissions from vehicles and power plants irritate airways, worsen asthma, and contribute to ozone (O₃) and fine particles (PM₂.₅), harming health and visibility.
Sulfur dioxide
Irritant gas resulting mainly from fuel
combustion containing sulfur (large industrial
facilities, diesel vehicles) and melting of
metals.
SO₂ causes respiratory irritation and
contributes to the formation of acid rain,
which damages ecosystems, buildings, and
crops.
Carbon monoxide
Carbon monoxide (CO):
Binds with iron in blood hemoglobin
Reduces blood’s ability to transport oxygen
Causes headache, fatigue, drowsiness, death
Explain different types of Ozone
- Tropospheric Ozone:Man-made pollutant
in the lower
atmosphere
– Secondary air
pollutant and component of smog - Stratospheric Ozone:Essential component
that screens out UV
radiation in the upper
atmosphere
– Man-made pollutants
such as
chlorofluorocarbons
(CFCs) can destroy it
(eg. Lead to Ozone
hole
What was the The Montreal Protocol
1987 was an international agreement that
regulated the production and consumption of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and
other ozone-depleting substances (ODS).
Explain Ozone Depletion in stratosphere
Ozone Protects earth from UV radiation
– Part of the electromagnetic spectrum with
wavelengths just shorter than visible light
How are the pollutnts levels like today
Over the past 30 years, some pollutants like SO₂, CO, NO₂, and VOCs have decreased, while O₃ levels remain stable but sometimes exceed safe limits. CO₂ levels are rising, and current standards do not fully protect vulnerable people from pollution effects.
What places had low and peak concentrations of PM 2.5
Southern Quebec and souther Ontario were decreasing and prairies and northern Ontario were increasing.
Consequences of Forest fires
-PM
-Co2 and Co
-Nitrogen oxides (NO)
Lightning consequences
The extreme heat causes nitrogen in the
atmosphere to react with oxygen, forming
nitrogen oxides (NOₓ). These compounds are
precursors to ozone (O₃)
Volcanic erruption
-Ash
-Sulfur oxides lead to formation of sulfur aerosoles
Air pollution and death correlation
Air pollution is the 4th risk factor for premature
mortality worldwide
What are the 3 parts of respitory system
– Naso-pharyngeal
(HAR:Head Airways Region)
– Tracheo-bronchial
(TBR:Tracheo-bronchial region)
– Pulmonary-Alveolar
(GER:Gas exchange region )
What is the risk of pollutants
Pollutants trigger inflammation from oxidative stress, increase blood viscosity and clot risk, cause DNA damage linked to cancer, lead to hypoxemia (low oxygen) from CO, reduce placental function in pregnancy, and can be detected through inflammatory or oxidative stress biomarkers.
Health problems related to air pollution
- Increased mortality
- Cancers, including lung and breasts
- Neurological impacts (including dementia
and Alzheimer’s disease) - Neurodevelopmental impacts
- Autism spectrum disorders
is there threshold for pollution
Epidemiological studies show that fine particles harm health, with no safe threshold, meaning all pollution levels should be minimized. Long-term effects are more severe than short-term ones, highlighting the need to reduce overall exposure.
What does the graph illustrate about ambient particulate air pollution and daily mortality?
It shows the relationship between PM₁₀ and PM₂.₅ concentrations and daily mortality, highlighting increased mortality with higher pollutant levels.
What trend is observed in the relationship between particulate matter and mortality in the graph?
There is a positive correlation—higher particulate matter concentrations lead to increased daily mortality.
What environmental factors influence SARS-CoV-2 activity and transmission?
UV radiation and high temperatures reduce viral activity, while relative humidity and low temperatures impact droplet size and airway cell function, respectively.
What is the combined effect of air pollution and environmental factors on respiratory virus outcomes?
They weaken immune defenses, increase viral entry into host cells, and elevate respiratory virus morbidity and mortality.
What is an Air Quality Measurement Network?
It is a system of several monitoring stations, also called fixed stations, used to measure air quality.
feature that turns air
quality data into a simple value that the public can
understand.
Air Quality Health Index (AQHI) scale of 1-10
Solutions to Reduce Pollution:
policy-level changes,
individual actions
What public health actions can address air pollution?
ctions include alert systems, quantifying health impacts, raising awareness, and promoting emission reductions through laws, incentives, transportation policies, cleaner vehicles, and maintenance programs.
What are preventive medicine practices for patients at higher risk from pollution episodes?
Practices include identifying at-risk patients (e.g., elderly, heart or lung conditions), advising them to monitor smog advisories, limit outdoor activity during smog episodes, avoid polluted areas, and follow a medication action plan.
What are some indoor air pollutants
Gases:CO2, CO, NO2, Radons,
Vapours: VOC and formaldehydes
Biological contaminants: mould,dust mites
Why is CO problamatic in homes
odorless, colorless, asphyxiant gas produced by incomplete combustion. It binds to hemoglobin with much higher affinity than O₂, reducing blood oxygen capacity. High levels of carboxyhemoglobin (60-70%) can cause unconsciousness and death.
What are common source of indoor CO
-Malfunctioning or improperly vented heating systems
-Blocked Chimneys
-Infiltration of automobile/engine exhaust from an attached garag
-Cigarette
How are CO gases measured at home
Co detector measures by parts per million (PPM) ranges from 0 to 13,000 which is death after 1 to 3 minutes.
What can the saskatoon incident at seniors home tell us about the symptoms one might have prior to co poisning
Headaches and flu like symptoms.
What can high CO2 levels at home indicate
CO2 does not pose a health concern at levels generally encountered in
indoor air. However, monitoring indoor CO2
can provide important information
regarding ventilation..The logic is: If ventilation rates are low enough to allow CO2
to
accumulate, other pollutants may be accumulating as well
Explain NO2 gases indoors
-irritant gas occurs in lower respiratory tract
-Exposure can result in increased bronchial reactivity and decreased lung
function
What is radon, and why is it a health concern?
Radon is a naturally occurring radioactive gas that infiltrates enclosed spaces, like basements, through cracks. It increases the risk of lung cancer.
What are VOCs, and where do they come from?
VOCs (volatile organic compounds) are chemicals from sources like paints, cleaning fluids, building materials, fuel vapors, and tobacco smoke. Common examples include benzene (a carcinogen), formaldehyde (a possible carcinogen), toluene, and xylene.
Actions to Reduce VOC Exposure:
Avoid storing materials containing VOCs indoors (e.g. old paint cans, gasoline,
etc) or in attached garages and increase ventilation
What is Legionnaire’s Disease
Legionnaire’s Disease is a bacterial pneumonia caused by Legionella pneumophila, often spread through contaminated water sources like cooling towers.
How was Legionnaire’s Disease first identified?
It was first recognized in 1976 during an outbreak at a Legionnaire’s convention in Philadelphia, caused by contaminated water from a hotel cooling tower entering the meeting room air.
What is Pontiac Fever, and what are its symptoms?
Pontiac Fever is a flu-like illness with symptoms including fever, chills, headache, and muscle pain, with an average incubation period of 36 hours.
Legionnaire’s Disease:
Caused by infection with Legionella pneumophila from inhaling contaminated water droplets.
The bacteria infect the lungs, leading to severe pneumonia.
It requires antibiotic treatment and can be life-threatening
Pontanic fever
Caused by exposure to Legionella pneumophila or its components (toxins or dead bacteria) in contaminated water or air.
It is an immune reaction, not an infection, meaning live bacteria are not involved in causing symptoms.
Symptoms are flu-like and resolve without antibiotics.
What methods are used to overcome the limitations of fixed air quality monitoring stations?
dvanced methods include combining satellite data, ground-based observations, and chemical transport models to estimate pollutant levels like PM₂.₅ and NO₂ with high spatial and temporal resolution.
How is NO₂ exposure commonly estimated?
NO₂ exposure is estimated using Land Use Regression (LUR) models and satellite-based NO₂ vertical column densities from NASA Earth observations.
What is Aerosol Optical Depth (AOD), and how is it related to PM₂.₅?
OD measures light extinction in the atmosphere due to aerosols. It helps estimate PM₂.₅ concentrations, adjusted using chemical transport models and ground observations.
What pollutants are most strongly associated with cardiovascular impacts?
PM₂.₅, PM₁₀, NO₂, and SO₂ are strongly associated with cardiovascular morbidity and mortality, while O₃ has less consistent associations.
What are the long-term cardiovascular effects of air pollution exposure?
Long-term exposure is linked to increased risks of cardiovascular mortality, ischemic heart disease, atherosclerosis, hypertension, insulin resistance, and type 2 diabetes.
What studies first highlighted the link between air pollution and cardiovascular mortality?
The Harvard Six Cities study (1993) and the American Cancer Society (ACS) study (1982–1989) were among the first to show that long-term PM₂.₅ exposure increased cardiovascular and all-cause mortality.
What did the ELAPSE project reveal about air pollution and cardiovascular health?
The ELAPSE project showed that long-term exposure to PM₂.₅, NO₂, and black carbon increased cardiovascular mortality across six European countries.
Which pollutants are most associated with respiratory risks?
PM₂.₅ and NO₂ are strongly associated with increased lung inflammation, oxidative stress, and allergic responses.
Which types of cancers are most strongly linked to air pollution?
Lung cancer (most strongly linked) and possibly bladder, breast, prostate, gastrointestinal cancers, and childhood leukemia.
How does particulate matter (PM₂.₅) increase cancer risk?
A 10 µg/m³ increase in PM₂.₅ raises lung cancer mortality by 12%.
What did the IARC conclude about diesel engine exhaust?
It is classified as carcinogenic to humans, linked to lung and bladder cancer.
How does air pollution affect the fetus?
Through mechanisms like oxidative stress, inflammation, and the transfer of ultrafine particles across the placenta
Is the evidence for neurological effects of air pollution conclusive
No, the evidence is suggestive but not yet sufficient to establish a definitive relationship.
Extreme heat symptoms
headache, muscle cramps, heat rash, fatigue,
Effect of extreme on prenatal health
malformation of the heart or neural tube upon
exposure during the 1st trimester
Subjects with neurological disorders and
dementia in heat waves
-more vulnerable to
extreme heat due to physiological,
behavioral, and social factors
-Psychiatric medications can increase vulnerability to heat-related morbidity by altering the body’s ability to
thermoregulate
What are some preventative stratagies for extreme heat
-information/education
-Warning and alerts
-Develop ways to reduce the thermal load of
buildings
-Early medical intervention
How can increasing vegetation help reduce urban heat?
Trees, shrubs, green spaces, and green roofs provide shade, absorb heat, and improve air quality, cooling urban areas.
What urban planning strategies can reduce heat absorption in cities?
Use reflective building materials, install reflective rooftops, and adopt layouts that adapt to the climate.
How do water features and ventilation benefit urban environments?
Fountains, streams, and natural ventilation cool areas and improve air circulation.
What is the polar vortex
large mass of cold air that circulates around the Earth’s poles. It is a natural phenomenon that helps keep Arctic air contained within the polar regions.
How is the polar vortex held in place
by the polar jet stream, a strong, counterclockwise wind that keeps cold air locked near the poles.
Normally, the jet stream is stable, preventing Arctic air from moving too far south.
However, when the jet stream weakens or becomes wavier (often due to Arctic warming and reduced temperature contrasts), it allows cold air to spill southward, leading to extreme cold outbreaks in regions that are not usually this cold.
Due to climate change and Arctic warming, the polar vortex is becoming more unstable, meaning cold air intrusions into mid-latitudes (such as North America and Europe) are happening more frequently.
What is windchill index
The wind can accentuate the feeling of cold you feel
Wind chill can accelerate the loss of body heat and
cause the skin to freeze very quickly.
Wind Chill Index is used to measure the degree of
cooling experienced by exposed skin according to wind
speed
How does the body react to cold weather
-increasing heart rate and respiratory rate
-the vaso- and bronchoconstriction as well as muscle
contraction in order to produce more heat and
redistribute it to vital organs
How do certain medications and drugs increase heat-related mortality?
They impair sweating, vasodilation, and brain temperature regulation, making it harder for the body to cool down.
What are the limitations of WBGT in assessing heat risk in sports?
estimates assume fixed cloud cover and wind, underestimating heat risk on sunny, still days. Sport-specific thresholds are needed.
What is the urban heat island (UHI) effect?
Cities are hotter than rural areas, especially at night, due to stored heat in buildings, roads, and emissions from transportation and industry.
How does air conditioning contribute to urban heat?
ncreased AC use releases more heat into the environment, creating a positive feedback loop that raises urban temperatures.
The Assessment Report of the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
(IPCC) made it clear that:
Climate is changing, we are the cause, and this
change is already exerting impacts that will
become increasingly severe if we do not take action
3 Biggest Influences on Climate
1️⃣ The Sun ☀️ → Main energy source for Earth’s climate.
2️⃣ The Atmosphere 🌍 → Traps heat (absorbs 70% of solar radiation).
3️⃣ The Oceans 🌊 → Store & move heat and moisture, shaping climate.
What is Albedo
Yes! Albedo is like nature’s mirror 🌍✨. It describes how much sunlight a surface reflects versus how much it absorbs.
if something is said to have High Albedo what does it mean
More reflection therfore cooler tempretures examples of this are snow, clouds.
If something is said to have low Albedo what does it mean
More absorption therfore warmer tempreture example of this are the oceans
What is GWP and what are the biggest contributors
Measures how strong a greenhouse gas is at trapping heat compared to carbon dioxide (CO₂).
Think of GWP like blankets:
CO₂ = 1 light blanket 🛏️
Methane = 25 thick blankets
Nitrous Oxide = 296 heavy blankets 😰 (super heat-trapping!)
What is a sink
Natural Storage for CO₂
-absorbs more carbon than it releases
what is Radiative forcing
The change in Earth’s energy balance caused by a factor (like greenhouse gases or aerosols). AKA
Radiative forcing is the change in Earth’s energy balance due to factors that affect how much heat enters or leaves the atmosphere.
What is Milankovitch cycles
natural, periodic changes in Earth’s rotation and orbit around the Sun, affecting climate over thousands of years by altering the amount of solar energy Earth receives. 🌍☀️
Explain Solar output
drives temperature change on Earth’s
surface
Explain Ocean absorption
= the ocean holds 50 times more carbon
than the atmosphere and absorbs it from the atmosphere
(acts as a sink)
Explain Ocean Circulation
The ocean transfers heat to the atmosphere and moves energy around the planet through currents
explain Thermohaline Circulation
“Global Conveyor Belt”) = A deep-ocean current driven by temperature (thermo) and salt (haline) differences, which helps regulate global climate.
what are Atmospheric blocking pattern
= loops of polar jet
stream get block into one position for a long period
▪ Can cause droughts and flooding
What can permafrost melting do
-Increased chance of landslides if it begins
to melt
-Could lead to accelerated release of soil gases
what are climate change effects on agriculture
Shorter growing seasons + weaker crops = Less food production → More hunger
What are climate change affects on forestry
More pests, diseases, and wildfires = Damaged forests and ecosystem loss
What are SSPs?
SSPs are scenarios that predict how society, policies, and economies might evolve, impacting greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and climate change
What is SSP1
Focuses on sustainable growth, international cooperation, and low emissions.
What is SSP2
Continues current trends, with moderate emissions and climate impact.
What is SSP3
(Regional Rivalry) 🔥 – Countries act independently, leading to slow economic growth, high inequality, and high emissions.
What is SSP4
(Inequality) 💰 – A world where the wealthy thrive, but inequality increases, with high emissions.
What is SSP5
(Fossil-Fueled Growth) 🚗 – Prioritizes economic growth using fossil fuels, leading to very high emissions.
Diffrence between mitigation and Adaptation
Mitigation: Preventing or reducing climate change by cutting greenhouse gas emissions.Examples: Using renewable energy, improving farm practices, and stopping deforestation.
Adaptation:Adjusting to climate change’s effects to reduce harm.
examples: Building flood defenses, improving water conservation, and developing heat-resistant crops.
Diffrence between mitigation and prevention
Prevention = Stopping a problem before it happens. and Mitigation = Reducing the severity of a problem that is already happening.
What are some lifestyel changes
-Conservation and efficency
-Source of electricity: natural gas is better than oil and oil is better than coal
-carbon capture and storage:remove Co2 from power plant emission.
-Cars: hybrid cars
-Driving less and using public transport
What is Carbon Offset
paying others to reduce emissions when you can’t or won’t cut your own.
Example: A company funds tree planting to balance out its pollution. 🌳
What is carbon neutrality
means that a person, company, or country removes the same amount of CO₂ they release, resulting in net-zero carbon emissions.
What are the levels of climate change health risks
1️⃣ Primary (Direct) – Immediate effects like heatwaves, extreme weather, and air pollution causing illness.
2️⃣ Secondary (Indirect) – Climate disruptions affecting food, water, and disease spread (e.g., more infections, lower crop yields).
3️⃣ Tertiary (Long-Term & Social) – Mental health issues, displacement, and conflicts over scarce resources.
What is the urban sprawl
Uncontrolled expansion of cities into surrounding rural areas. This leads to car dependent developments.
What makes a neigberhood walkable
- A centre
-Density:The neighborhood is compact enough for local businesses to
flourish and for public transportation to run frequently.
-Mixed income, mixed use: Housing is provided for everyone who
works in the neighborhood: young and old, singles and families, rich and
poor. Businesses and residences are located near each other.
Parks and public space: There are plenty of public places to gather
and play.
Pedestrian-centric design: Buildings are placed close to the street
to cater to foot traffic, with parking lots relegated to the back.
Proximity to schools and workplaces: Schools and workplaces
are close enough that most residents can walk from their homes.
list 4 ways used to measure green spaces
-Normalized Difference Vegetation Index
Google Street View index
Tree canopy cover
Proximity to parks with green spaces
explain Urban Exposome Concept Study
This study explores the urban exposome, which refers to the environmental exposures that people experience in cities and how these exposures relate to socioeconomic status (SES), particularly among pregnant women.
