English As A World Language Theory

Question 1

Reflectionism

Answer 1

• The idea that language reflects the society and culture in which it is used,
• that changes in language occur because of changes in society, meaning that as attitudes, values, and social structures evolve, so does the way people speak and write
• e.g. as society becomes more inclusive and aware of issues such as gender and race, language adapts to reflect these changes - like the increased use of gender-neutral terms.

Question 2

Determinism

Answer 2

• the idea that language shapes and influences the way people think and perceive the world.
• this theory suggests that our thoughts are constrained or guided by the language we use, meaning that if a language lacks certain words or structures, it may limit how its speakers can conceptualise certain ideas

Question 3

Random fluctuation theory

Answer 3

• suggests that language change occurs due to random and unpredictable events, including errors, mispronunciations or other accidental variations in speech and writing
• these fluctuations can sometimes become established over time and lead to permanent linguistic changes
• this theory challenges the idea that all language change is systematic or purposeful, instead emphasising the role of chance and unpredictability in linguistic evolution

Question 4

Baileys wave model

Answer 4

• a theory of language change that suggests linguistic innovations spread outward from a central point, similar to ripple in a pond. The closer someone is to the Origen of the change (geographically, socially or culturally), the more likely they are to adopt it quickly
• as the change spreads further, its influence weakens, meaning people who are more distant from the source are less likely to adopt it or will do so at a slower rate

Question 5

the euphemism treadmill

Answer 5

• proposed by Steven Pinker, which describes how euphemisms (polite or indirect words used to replace more direct or potentially offensive terms) can lose their intended neutrality over time and become offensive themselves. this process then leads to the creation of new euphemisms, continuing the cycle
• this theory highlights how societal attitudes shape language and how linguistic change is often driven by attempts to avoid taboo or stigma

Question 6

saphir-whorf hypothesis

Answer 6

• the idea that the language we speak influences, and in its strongest form, DETERMINES how we think and perceive the world. 2 versions:
• linguistic determinism (strong version): language COMPLETELY DETERMINES THOUGHT, meaning that without specific words or structures in a language, certain ideas CANNOT BE CONCEIVED
• linguistic relativity (weaker version): language INFLUENCES THOUGHT but does not fully determine it, meaning that speakers of different languages may perceive the world differently based on the linguistic structures available to them.

Question 7

political correctness

Answer 7

• the practice of using language that avoids offending or marginalizing particular social groups, especially in terms of race, gender, disability and sexuality. it aims to promote inclusivity and prevent discrimination through careful word choice
• for example, terms like “chairperson” instead of “chairman” or “visually impaired” instead of “blind” are used to avoid reinforcing stereotypes or causing offense

Question 8

descriptivism

Answer 8

• focuses on observing and describing how language is actually used, rather than prescribing how it should be used.
• descriptivist’s accept language change and variation as natural and inevitable, without labelling certain usages as “right” or “wrong”.

Question 9

prescriptivism

Answer 9

• an approach to language that enforces strict rules about what is considered “correct” or “incorrect” usage
• prescriptivists believe that language should follow established grammar, spelling and pronunciation rules, often resisting change and non-standard varieties

Question 10

stevens family tree model

Answer 10

• suggests that languages develop through a process of branching, where a parent language splits into different daughter languages over time.
• for example: latin is the parent language of romance languages like french, spanish and italian

Question 11

Schneider’s dynamic model

Answer 11

• a theory that explains how postcolonial varieties of english develop over time. the model outlines 5 stages of how english evolves in countries where it has been introduced through colonization:
  1. foundation - english is introduced through colonization, and bilingualism begins
  2. exonormative stabilisation - the colonisers english remains the standard, but local people start using it
  3. nativisation - english blends with local languages, leading to unique structures and pronunciations
  4. endonormative stabilisation - a new local standard of english emerges, seperate from the colonisers variety
  5. differentiation - different regional and social varieties of english develop within the country

Question 12

Kachru’s circles

Answer 12

A model that categorises the global use of English into 3 concentric circles based on historical development, function and proficiency:
1) inner circle: countries where English is the native or first language (e.g. UK, USA)
2) outer circle: countries where English is a second language and has an official or significant role due to colonial history (e.g. India, Singapore)
3) expanding circle - countries where English is learned as a foreign language for international communication (e.g. china, Russia, japan)
This model highlights the diversity of English worldwide and challenges the idea that only native-speaker varieties are “correct” or prestigious

Question 13

Modianos English as an international language (EIL)

Answer 13

• challenges traditional views of English varieties and emphasises English as a global means of communication
• modianos model places proficient users of English at the centre, REGARDLESS OF WHETHER ENGLISH is their first, second or foreign language. This model consists of:
  1. A central circle: speakers who use English effectively for international communication
  2. A surrounding area - speakers who have some English ability but may not be fully proficient
  3. An outer area - people who have little or no ability in English
  This reflects the idea that English is no longer “owned” by native speakers and that non-native varieties should be valued as legitimate forms of English used for global interaction

Question 14

Lexical gaps

Answer 14

• words or expressions that do not exist in a language but could logically or theoretically exist based on grammatical or lexical patterns. Two types:
  1. Synchronic lexical gaps: words that could exist based on a languages current structure but do not (e.g. in English we don’t have a gender neutral name for a parents sibling)
  2. Diachronic lexical gaps: words that may have once existed or could develop in the future but are currently missing (e.g. some language have different words for different types of love)